Divine Submission: Religion Under Imperial Authority in China and Russia
In the long course of human history, the relationship between religion and secular power has taken many forms. In Western Europe, Catholicism and royalty often vied for influence in a protracted power struggle that shaped a unique social structure. However, in the vast empires of Russia and China, a completely different pattern emerged: religion was long subordinate to imperial authority. Neither Russian Orthodoxy nor Chinese Buddhism and Taoism ever developed into an independent power capable of checking the monarch's rule. Why did this happen? And what impact did this dynamic have on both the religion itself and its followers?
The Historical Roots of Submission
The subordination of religion to imperial authority in Russia and China was not accidental but was rooted in their unique historical and cultural foundations.
Russian Orthodoxy:
Russia's adoption of Orthodox Christianity was driven by a political agenda. In the late 10th century, Vladimir the Great, the ruler of Kievan Rus', chose Byzantium's Orthodox faith to unify his disparate tribes and consolidate state power. This choice brought with it the tradition of "Caesaropapism," where the emperor served as the head of both state and church. When Moscow later saw itself as the successor to the Byzantine Empire—the "Third Rome"—this model of state-church fusion was further solidified. The Russian Tsars viewed the church as an extension of the state apparatus, controlling the appointment of patriarchs and ensuring the church's legitimacy was tied to their own rule.
Chinese Buddhism and Taoism:
From the Qin and Han dynasties onward, the Chinese emperor was considered the "Son of Heaven" (Tianzi), the sole link between the divine and the human realms. This supreme political philosophy fundamentally rejected any competing source of power. Although Buddhism and Taoism were widespread among the populace, their survival and growth depended on imperial patronage. Emperors granted land, funds, and official status in exchange for legitimacy and political loyalty. The state would often co-opt these religions by controlling monastic ordinations, appointments of religious leaders, and even the content of scriptures. Any religious group that challenged the emperor's authority, regardless of its teachings, was suppressed as a heresy.
The Impact on Religion and Society
This model of religious submission had a profound impact on the religious institutions and societies of both civilizations.
Impact on Religion:
Religious institutions lost their independent moral authority. The church or monasteries were no longer seen as a separate spiritual community but rather as an appendage of the state. Religious doctrines were often molded to serve state interests. For example, Buddhist and Taoist teachings on filial piety and obedience to authority were widely promoted in China to support social order, while the Russian Orthodox Church was used to promote a narrative of national and imperial destiny. When imperial rule was corrupt or tyrannical, religious leaders often lacked the courage or standing to speak out, unable to provide effective spiritual or institutional refuge for the common people.
Impact on Society:
This dynamic left society without an effective internal check on power. Unlike in medieval Europe, where the Pope could challenge kings, the monarchs of Russia and China were largely free from religious checks, which helped to perpetuate absolute rule. Furthermore, it fostered a deep integration of national and religious identity. For Russians, being Russian was synonymous with being Orthodox; in China, officially sanctioned religions became tools for maintaining imperial rule, leading followers to link their loyalty to the emperor with their faith in the gods.
What This Signifies to Followers: The Emperor's Supremacy?
The most striking message this relationship sent to followers was that the emperor or monarch's authority was superior to that of the divine.
In China, the emperor's position as the "Son of Heaven" inherently placed him above all religions. While gods and spirits existed in a remote celestial realm, the emperor was the immediate, tangible source of supreme power on Earth. He could decide a religion's fate, issue decrees to manage monks and priests, and even grant titles to deities. This immense gap in real-world power showed followers who the true master was.
In Russia, the Tsar was not merely a protector of the church but its secular head. By controlling the appointment of top clergy, the Tsar demonstrated his power over the religious hierarchy. This conveyed a clear message to the populace: the church's power was a delegated authority, ultimately subservient to the monarch's command.
In conclusion, the roles of both Russian Orthodoxy and Chinese Buddhism and Taoism within their respective empires were those of tools for imperial rule. This lack of checks and balances not only weakened the religions' independence and moral authority but also created a societal foundation where the ruler's absolute power could flourish unchecked.
發表文章
