Rituals of Release: Popular Spectacles of Subversion Across Cultures

 That's a fascinating connection! The Dutch event you're thinking of, often involving a greasy rope or a slippery eel and a subsequent brawl, is a similar manifestation of a popular cultural ritual. It, like the Great Cat Massacre, involves the lower classes, animals, public spectacle, and a release of social tension.

Rituals of Release: Popular Spectacles of Subversion Across Cultures

Robert Darnton's analysis of the Great Cat Massacre and similar European rituals, such as the Dutch greasy eel or rope game (where prizes were fought over, often resulting in chaos and injury), highlights a universal phenomenon: the use of public spectacle and ritualized violence to express and temporarily resolve deep social and class tensions. While European examples often featured the animal as a substitute for an oppressive master or a witch, East Asian traditions tended to channel aggression through seasonal festivals, theatrical mockery, and animal sacrifice tied to spiritual appeasement.

Cultural Parallels in East Asia

In East Asia, particularly China, cultural control over public order has historically been strict, meaning open, spontaneous riots disguised as rituals (like the Cat Massacre) were less common. Instead, social release was often channeled through highly ritualized, state-sanctioned, or seasonal popular festivals.

1. The Lantern Festival and Licensed Mockery (China)

During the Lantern Festival (元宵節, Yuánxiāojié), the closing event of the Chinese New Year, order was frequently inverted. While not involving animal cruelty, this festival allowed for licensed mockery of local officials, the wealthy, and scholars.

• The Spectacle: Popular theatrical troupes would perform satirical plays and skits, openly lampooning the powerful. For a brief period, the ruling elite had to tolerate being the object of the lower classes' laughter and scorn.

• The Function: This public shaming acted as a ritualistic pressure valve, allowing the common people to air grievances against the local bureaucracy and the wealthy elite without facing direct reprisal. It served the same social inversion function as the European massacres.

2. Animal Sacrifice and Appeasement (China and Southeast Asia)

In many traditional East Asian folk religions, particularly those focusing on placating angry or malevolent spirits (like hungry ghosts or plague deities), animal sacrifice was a common, highly public spectacle. While not an act of socialrevenge, it was an act of spiritual appeasement often carried out by lower-class temple committees on behalf of the community.

• The Spectacle: The ritualistic slaughter of pigs, oxen, or goats was a key part of temple fairs and festivals, providing a potent, bloody demonstration of communal resolve against spiritual threats. The subsequent feast often redistributed food and power within the community.

• The Function: The drama channeled collective anxiety (be it famine or plague) into a public event, binding the community together while symbolically restoring cosmic harmony.

3. Ritualized Fights and Aggressive Sports (Korea and Japan)

In Korea and Japan, certain traditional sports and games, often associated with harvest or seasonal change, functioned as structured ways for different social groups or villages to express rivalry and aggression.

• Korea's Sseumbeok (Korean-style wrestling): Historically, village wrestling matches were fiercely competitive and sometimes violent, with the victorious village gaining symbolic prestige and, occasionally, even temporary rights to water or land. The aggressive physical rivalry served as a structured release for inter-village tension.

• Japan's Shinto Festivals: Many Shinto festivals feature chaotic, aggressive elements—such as purposefully ramming enormous floats together—that function as a controlled way to release collective, often class-based, energy and excitement.

Conclusion

Across cultures, when formal political structures fail to provide justice or social mobility, the lower classes turn to ritualized public spectacle to perform their grievances. Whether it's the satirical burning of an effigy, the public torture of a symbolic animal, or chaotic festival games, these events function as a vital, if often brutal, safety valve for collective frustration, temporarily reversing the established order through a shared moment of transgressive laughter or violence.

 

宣洩的儀式：跨文化的顛覆性民眾景觀

 

宣洩的儀式：跨文化的顛覆性民眾景觀

羅伯特·達恩頓對「屠貓記」的分析，以及類似的歐洲儀式，例如荷蘭的「油膩的鰻魚或繩子遊戲」（人們爭搶獎品，經常導致混亂和受傷），突顯了一個普遍現象：利用公共景觀和儀式性暴力來表達和暫時解決深層次的社會和階級緊張關係。雖然歐洲的例子通常將動物作為壓迫者或女巫的替代品，但東亞的傳統往往通過季節性節慶、戲劇性嘲諷以及與精神慰藉相關的動物犧牲來引導攻擊性。

東亞的文化相似之處

在東亞，特別是中國，歷史上對公共秩序的文化控制一直嚴格，這意味著像「屠貓記」那樣偽裝成儀式的公開、自發性暴動較為罕見。相反，社會宣洩往往通過高度儀式化、國家批准或季節性的民間節日來引導。

1. 元宵節與被允許的嘲諷（中國）

在元宵節期間，作為春節的閉幕活動，社會秩序經常被顛倒。雖然不涉及虐待動物，但這個節日允許被許可的嘲諷當地官員、富人和學者。

• 景觀： 民間戲劇團體會表演諷刺性的戲劇和小品，公開嘲弄有權勢的人。在短暫的時間內，統治精英必須容忍成為底層階級笑聲和嘲諷的對象。

• 功能： 這種公開羞辱充當了儀式性的減壓閥，允許普通民眾發洩對地方官僚和富裕精英的不滿，而不會面臨直接的報復。它發揮了與歐洲屠殺事件相同的社會反轉功能。

2. 動物犧牲與慰藉（中國和東南亞）

在許多傳統東亞民間宗教中，特別是那些專注於安撫憤怒或惡毒神靈（如餓鬼或瘟疫神）的宗教中，動物犧牲是一種常見的、高度公開的景觀。雖然這不是一種社會性復仇行為，但它是一種精神性慰藉行為，通常由底層階級的廟宇委員會代表社區執行。

• 景觀： 豬、牛或山羊的儀式性屠宰是廟會和節慶的關鍵部分，提供了對抗精神威脅的有力、血腥的集體決心展示。隨後的盛宴通常會在社區內重新分配食物和權力。

• 功能： 這種戲劇性的活動將集體焦慮（無論是飢荒還是瘟疫）引導到一個公共事件中，同時通過象徵性地恢復宇宙和諧來凝聚社區。

3. 儀式性打鬥與競技體育（韓國和日本）

在韓國和日本，某些傳統體育和遊戲，通常與收穫或季節變化相關聯，充當著不同社會群體或村莊表達競爭和攻擊性的結構化方式。

• 韓國的 Sseumbeok（韓式摔跤）： 歷史上，村莊摔跤比賽競爭激烈，有時甚至暴力，獲勝的村莊會獲得象徵性的威望，偶爾甚至獲得對水或土地的臨時權利。這種具攻擊性的身體競爭是村莊間緊張關係的結構化宣洩。

• 日本的神道節慶： 許多神道節慶的特色是混亂、激進的元素——例如故意讓巨大的花車互相撞擊——這些活動是控制和釋放集體（通常是基於階級的）能量和興奮的方式。

結論

跨越文化，當正式的政治結構無法提供正義或社會流動性時，底層階級會轉向儀式性的公共景觀來表達他們的不滿。無論是諷刺性地焚燒人像、公開折磨象徵性動物，還是混亂的節慶遊戲，這些事件都發揮著至關重要的安全閥作用，儘管通常是殘酷的，通過共同的、具有違規性的歡笑或暴力時刻，暫時顛覆既有的秩序。

嘲笑的劊子手：解讀「屠貓記」

🔪 嘲笑的劊子手：解讀「屠貓記」

在十八世紀三十年代的巴黎，發生了一件怪誕而暴力的事件：印刷作坊學徒對貓進行了儀式性的屠殺。這一事件遠非偶然的殘酷行為，而是成為羅伯特·達恩頓（Robert Darnton） 1984年經典文章《屠貓記》（The Great Cat Massacre）的焦點。達恩頓以人類學的視角，解開了十八世紀法國工人的文化和社會密碼。

解碼文化文本

達恩頓劃時代的貢獻在於他將該事件視為一個文化文本進行處理。他的核心問題是：為什麼這場被施暴者以極度歡樂的心情講述的事件，對他們來說是如此滑稽可笑？通過尋找答案，他闡明了在正式歷史中常被忽視的底層階級的世界觀。

1. 事件： 由於長時間工作、食物匱乏以及對師傅及其妻子的蔑視，印刷學徒上演了一場對當地貓隻的模擬審判和殘酷處決，其中包括師傅妻子心愛的寵物貓 la grise（灰貓）。

2. 背景： 師傅及其嬌慣的寵物象徵著精英階層專橫的權力和特權。同時，學徒們生活在不穩定的環境中，經常睡在寒冷的作坊裡，並恐懼上級的影響力。

3. 象徵意義： 在法國的民間傳說中，貓，特別是黑貓（儘管這次是灰貓），與巫術、魔鬼和非法性行為有著根深蒂固的聯繫。通過對貓進行正式審判和痛苦處決，學徒們在象徵性地對師傅的妻子發動一場獵巫行動。他們將她視為一個具有「魔法」控制力的虐待者，並對她充滿鄙視和恐懼。

因此，「屠貓記」是一場具有顛覆性的、宣洩性的社會反轉儀式。這是一種安全的方式，讓工人們在嘉年華（狂歡節）期間利用暫時被允許的違規行為，發洩他們對權威的暴力和怨恨，而嘉年華的傳統就是社會秩序暫時顛倒。

達恩頓作品的重要性 

達恩頓的文章是文化史的基礎，並因其方法論而在人類學中被廣泛教授。它表明，看似非理性或怪誕的事件，如果用產生它們的文化的內在邏輯來解讀，就會變得完全合理和有意義。它將歷史焦點從政治精英的宏大敘事，轉向了普通民眾的流行信仰和精神狀態（世界觀）。

應用此教訓：將新冠疫情社交距離視為文化文本

達恩頓的「屠貓記」教導我們，極端、突然的社會變革往往會揭示潛在的文化緊張關係，並創造新的反轉儀式。我們可以將此視角應用於最近新冠疫情期間強制執行的社交距離：

• 事件： 實施普遍的空間屏障（2米/6英尺）、強制要求佩戴口罩，以及關閉公共社交場所。

• 經驗： 對許多人來說，遵守社交距離是集體責任和公共美德的必要行為——一種擊敗隱形敵人的共同「儀式」。然而，對另一些人來說，它變成了政府越權、自由喪失和對官方敘事不信任的象徵。

• 神話/顛覆： 屠貓記是對師傅權威的顛覆性嘲笑。在疫情期間，不遵守規定的人（嘲笑口罩或秘密聚會的人）就是象徵性的等價物。他們的違抗行為是對實施了新的、限制性社會秩序的「道德主宰」（科學家、政府、順從的公民）的儀式性社會反轉行為。反口罩者，就像學徒一樣，通過一種挑釁性的、儘管危險的違規行為，表達了對權威根深蒂固的不信任和重新獲得自主權的渴望。

通過使用達恩頓的方法論，我們看到新冠疫情的社交距離不僅是一種公共衛生政策，也是一種文化「文本」，它突出並放大了自由與權威、個人選擇與集體責任之間現有的緊張關係。

The Laughing Executioners: Deciphering the Great Cat Massacre

 

🐈 The Laughing Executioners: Deciphering the Great Cat Massacre

The 1730s in Paris saw a bizarre and violent episode: a ritualistic massacre of cats by printing shop apprentices.¹ This event, far from being a random act of cruelty, became the focus of Robert Darnton's seminal 1984 essay, "The Great Cat Massacre," which used an anthropological lens to unlock the cultural and social codes of 18th-century French workers.²

Decoding a Cultural Text

Darnton's groundbreaking contribution lies in his treatment of the event as a cultural text. His central question was: Why was this incident, recounted with enormous hilarity by the perpetrators, funny to them? By seeking the answer, he illuminated the worldview of the lower classes, a perspective often lost in formal history.

1. The Event: Frustrated by long hours, poor food, and contempt from their master and his wife, printing apprentices staged a mock trial and brutal execution of local cats, including the wife’s beloved pet, la grise.

2. The Context: The masters and their pampered pets symbolized the arbitrary power and privilege of the elite. Meanwhile, the apprentices lived under precarious conditions, often sleeping in cold workshops and fearing the influence of their superiors.

3. The Symbolism: The cat, particularly the black cat (or the grey one in this case), was deeply associated with witchcraft, the Devil, and illicit sex in popular French folklore. By subjecting the cats to a formal trial and painful execution, the apprentices were symbolically enacting a witch-hunt against their master's wife, a figure they despised and feared as an abusive figure with "magical" control over their lives.

The cat massacre was thus a subversive, cathartic ritual of social inversion.³ It was a safe way for the workers to express the violence and resentment they felt toward authority through licensed misrule, drawing upon the traditions of Carnival where the social order was temporarily turned upside down.

The Importance of Darnton's Work 🧠

Darnton's article is foundational to cultural history and is widely taught in anthropology because of its methodology.⁴ It demonstrates how seemingly irrational or bizarre events can become perfectly rational and meaningful when decoded using the internal logic of the culture that produced them. It shifted historical focus from the grand narratives of political elites to the popular beliefs and mentalités (worldviews) of the common people.

Applying the Lesson: COVID-19 Social Distancing as a Cultural Text

Darnton's "Cat Massacre" teaches us that extreme, sudden societal changes often reveal underlying cultural tensions and create new rituals of inversion. We can apply this lens to the recent mandatory social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic:

• The Event: The imposition of universal spatial barriers (2 meters/6 feet), the required wearing of masks, and the closure of public social spaces.

• The Experience: For many, the compliance with social distancing was a necessary act of collective responsibility and public virtue—a shared "ritual" to defeat an invisible enemy. However, for others, it became a symbol of government overreach, loss of liberty, and distrust of official narratives.

• The Myth/Subversion: The cat massacre was subversive laughter at the master's authority. During the pandemic, the non-compliant (those who mocked masks or gathered secretly) were the symbolic equivalents. Their defiance was a ritualistic act of social inversion against the "moral masters" (scientists, government, compliant citizens) who had enforced a new, restrictive social order. The anti-masker, like the apprentice, was expressing deep-seated distrust of authority and a desire to reclaim agency through a defiant, though dangerous, act of transgression.

By using Darnton’s methodology, we see that COVID-19 social distancing was not just a public health policy, but a cultural "text" that highlighted and amplified existing tensions between freedom and authority, individual choice and collective responsibility.

以孔飛力的「歷史三調」解析脫歐：事件、經驗與神話

 

以孔飛力的「歷史三調」解析脫歐：事件、經驗與神話

英國退出歐洲聯盟（脫歐，Brexit）的決定，可謂是現代英國史上最重大的政治事件。如同義和團運動一樣，它不僅僅是一系列事實的集合，而是一個複雜的現象，我們對它的理解受到其即時發展、參與者的多元經驗，以及後續圍繞它建構的敘事的影響。套用**孔飛力（Paul A. Cohen）在《歷史三調》**中的框架，我們可以對脫歐持久的史學分析進行剖析。

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第一調：作為「事件」的脫歐 

這個「調」著重於構成脫歐行為和決策的可驗證順序。它是事實的年表：

• 2016年公投： 舉行公投的政治決定、公投前的宣傳運動，以及51.9%的脫歐投票結果。

• 啟動《里斯本條約》第50條： 向歐盟發出英國退出意圖的正式通知。

• 談判： 英國與歐盟之間就退出條款、未來貿易關係以及北愛爾蘭議定書進行的漫長且往往充滿爭議的談判。

• 退出和貿易協定： 簽署和批准各種條約，這些條約使英國合法地與歐盟分離，並確立了新的貿易關係。

• 關鍵人物： 首相（卡梅倫、梅伊、強森、特拉斯、蘇納克）、歐盟官員（巴尼耶、容克、馮德萊恩）以及他們在整個過程中的各自角色。

這個「調」旨在提供一個客觀、事實性的描述，說明脫歐過程從開始到其當前的法律和經濟現實中「實際發生了什麼」。

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第二調：作為「經驗」的脫歐 

除了赤裸的事實之外，這個「調」探討了數百萬個人對脫歐深具主觀性和往往充滿情感的「經驗」。它深入研究了人們理解、感受和應對這些變化的多種方式：

• 脫歐派選民的經驗： 重新獲得主權、收回控制權、擺脫繁重法規，以及解決如不受控制的移民等感知問題的感覺。這往往源於一種被全球化拋在後面，以及感到在政治建制中沒有代表權的感覺。

• 留歐派選民的經驗： 感到失落、被背叛、對經濟穩定擔憂、失去遷徙自由，以及對英國國際地位和未來擔憂。這通常包括悲傷、憤怒和對自己國家決定的疏離感。

• 企業主的經驗： 適應新的海關檢查、貿易壁壘、供應鏈的變化以及勞動力短缺。

• 在英國的歐盟公民／在歐盟的英國公民： 應對新的移民規則、居留申請以及對他們未來身份和權利的焦慮。

• 北愛爾蘭： 北愛爾蘭議定書的複雜且往往痛苦的經驗，影響著身份認同、貿易與和平。

這個「調」旨在理解脫歐所創造的生活現實、個人故事以及多變的情感景觀，超越匯總的民意調查數據，觸及事件的人文層面。

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第三調：作為「神話」的脫歐 

這個「調」檢視了脫歐如何被解釋、重新解釋和有選擇地銘記，以服務於各種政治、經濟和文化議程。這些敘事往往將複雜的現實簡化為引人注目、但經常產生分裂的故事：

• 「全球英國」神話： 脫歐後出現了一種敘事，將英國定位為一個靈活、獨立的全球參與者，在全球範圍內締結新的貿易協定，擺脫歐盟官僚機構的約束。這個神話強調未來的潛力和民族自豪感。

• 「破碎英國」神話： 相反，脫歐的批評者經常將其定性為一場災難性的國家錯誤，導致經濟衰退、國際影響力下降和社會分裂。這種敘事經常將廣泛的國家挑戰歸咎於脫歐。

• 「人民的意願」神話： 這種常被脫歐派援引的敘事，堅稱公投結果是對民主意願的明確表達，必須受到最高的尊重，通常駁回要求與歐盟建立更緊密關係的呼籲。

• 「布魯塞爾官僚」神話： 一種持續存在的敘事，將歐盟描繪為一個不民主、過度擴權的官僚怪物，從而證明英國退出的必要性。

這些「神話」力量強大，塑造著公共話語、影響著政治修辭，並鞏固了根深蒂固的身份認同（脫歐派與留歐派）。它們所代表的不僅僅是歷史，而是一個充滿爭議的未來。

透過應用孔飛力的「歷史三調」，我們對脫歐有了更細緻入微的理解，認識到它不僅是一系列政治策略，更是一場深刻的社會斷裂，其意義仍有待持續詮釋和重新定義。

Brexit Through Cohen's Three Keys: Event, Experience, and Myth

 

Brexit Through Cohen's Three Keys: Event, Experience, and Myth

The United Kingdom's decision to leave the European Union – Brexit – is arguably the most significant political event in modern British history. Like the Boxer Rebellion, it is not merely a collection of facts, but a complex phenomenon whose understanding has been shaped by its immediate unfolding, the diverse experiences of those involved, and the subsequent narratives constructed around it. Applying Paul A. Cohen's framework from History in Three Keys allows us to dissect Brexit's lasting historiography.

Key One: Brexit as Event 

This key focuses on the verifiable sequence of actions and decisions that constitute Brexit. It's the factual chronology:

• The 2016 Referendum: The political decision to hold the referendum, the campaign leading up to it, and the 51.9% vote to Leave.

• Article 50 Trigger: The formal notification to the EU of the UK's intention to withdraw.

• Negotiations: The protracted and often acrimonious negotiations between the UK and the EU regarding withdrawal terms, future trade relationships, and the Northern Ireland Protocol.

• Withdrawal and Trade Agreements: The signing and ratification of the various treaties that legally separated the UK from the EU and established a new trading relationship.

• Key Actors: The prime ministers (Cameron, May, Johnson, Truss, Sunak), EU officials (Barnier, Juncker, Von der Leyen), and their respective roles in the process. This key aims to provide an objective, factual account of "what actually happened" throughout the Brexit process, from its inception to its current legal and economic realities.

Key Two: Brexit as Experience 

Beyond the bare facts, this key explores the deeply subjective and often emotional "experience" of Brexit for millions of individuals. It delves into the diverse ways people understood, felt, and responded to the changes:

• Leave Voters' Experience: The feeling of reclaiming sovereignty, taking back control, escaping burdensome regulations, and addressing perceived issues like uncontrolled immigration. This often stemmed from a sense of being left behind by globalization and feeling unrepresented by the political establishment.

• Remain Voters' Experience: The sense of loss, betrayal, concern for economic stability, loss of freedom of movement, and worries about the UK's international standing and future. This often included feelings of grief,anger, and alienation from their own country's decision.

• Business Owners' Experience: Adapting to new customs checks, trade barriers, changes in supply chains, and labor shortages.

• EU Citizens in the UK / UK Citizens in the EU: Navigating new immigration rules, residency applications, and anxieties about their future status and rights.

• Northern Ireland: The complex and often painful experience of the Northern Ireland Protocol, impacting identity,trade, and peace. This key seeks to understand the lived realities, the personal stories, and the varied emotional landscapes that Brexit created, moving beyond aggregated polling data to the human dimension of the event.

Key Three: Brexit as Myth 

This key examines how Brexit has been, and continues to be, interpreted, reinterpreted, and selectively remembered to serve various political, economic, and cultural agendas. These narratives often simplify complex realities into compelling,yet frequently divisive, stories:

• The "Global Britain" Myth: Post-Brexit, a narrative emerged positioning the UK as a nimble, independent global player, forging new trade deals worldwide and free from the constraints of EU bureaucracy. This myth emphasizes future potential and national pride.

• The "Broken Britain" Myth: Conversely, critics of Brexit frequently frame it as a catastrophic national error,leading to economic decline, reduced international influence, and societal division. This narrative often blames Brexit for a wide range of national challenges.

• The "Will of the People" Myth: This narrative, often invoked by Brexiteers, asserts that the referendum result was an unequivocal expression of democratic will that must be respected above all else, often dismissing calls for closer ties with the EU.

• The "Brussels Bureaucracy" Myth: A persistent narrative portraying the EU as an undemocratic, overreaching bureaucratic monster, justifying the need for the UK's departure. These "myths" are powerful, shaping public discourse, influencing political rhetoric, and cementing deeply entrenched identities (Leave vs. Remain). They represent not just history, but a contested future.

By applying Cohen's three keys, we gain a more nuanced understanding of Brexit, recognizing it not only as a series of political maneuvers but also as a profound societal rupture whose meaning remains subject to ongoing interpretation and reinterpretation.

Unpacking the Past: Paul Cohen's "History in Three Keys" and the Boxer Rebellion's Enduring Legacy

 

Unpacking the Past: Paul Cohen's "History in Three Keys" and the Boxer Rebellion's Enduring Legacy

The Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901) stands as a pivotal, often misunderstood, moment in Chinese history. While many historical accounts simply narrate the events, Paul A. Cohen's influential 1997 book, History in Three Keys: The Boxers as Event, Experience, and Myth, offers a profound methodological framework for understanding not just what happened, but how we remember and interpret it. Cohen invites us to view history not as a monolithic truth, but as a complex interplay of objective facts, subjective realities, and evolving narratives.

Key One: The Boxers as Event 

The first "key" focuses on the Boxer Uprising as a set of verifiable occurrences. This is the realm of traditional historical narration: the who, what, when, and where. Cohen meticulously reconstructs the sequence of actions: the rise of the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists, their anti-foreign and anti-Christian violence, the Qing court's fateful decision to endorse the Boxers, the siege of foreign legations in Beijing, and the subsequent intervention by the Eight-Nation Alliance. This key establishes the empirical foundation—the historical facts—upon which all further interpretations are built. It seeks to answer the question: "What actually happened?"

Key Two: The Boxers as Experience 

Beyond the objective event, Cohen delves into the subjective "experience" of those involved. This key explores how the participants themselves understood, perceived, and gave meaning to the unfolding crisis. It investigates the Boxers' magico-religious beliefs, such as their conviction of invulnerability to bullets, and examines the pervasive role of rumor,local grievances, and cultural clashes between traditional communities and Christian converts. By looking at the rebellion through the eyes of peasants, missionaries, and officials, Cohen illuminates the motivations, fears, and worldviews that shaped their actions, moving beyond mere facts to grasp the lived realities.

Key Three: The Boxers as Myth 

Perhaps Cohen's most powerful contribution, the "myth" key analyzes how the Boxer Uprising has been interpreted,reinterpreted, and selectively remembered over time to serve various political and ideological agendas. For early 20th-century Chinese intellectuals, the Boxers were often portrayed as superstitious, backward figures. In contrast, the Chinese Communist Party later reframed them as heroic anti-imperialist patriots, essential for forging a national identity rooted in revolutionary struggle. Western narratives, meanwhile, frequently highlighted the "barbarism" of the Boxers and the "heroism" of the foreign defenders. This key reveals that history is not static; it is a contested terrain where different groups construct narratives to legitimize their own perspectives and goals.

Cohen's work is a vital reminder that understanding history requires engaging with its multiple dimensions—the facts, the lived experiences, and the persistent, often politically charged, narratives that shape our collective memory.