The Emergence and Evolution of Race in China and its Impact on Governance

 

The Emergence and Evolution of Race in China and its Impact on Governance

The concept of race, as a biological and hierarchical classification of human beings, is widely understood as a modern invention with roots in 18th and 19th-century Europe. While premodern China certainly held ethnocentric views and distinguished between itself and perceived 'barbarians', the modern understanding of race based on scientific discourse arrived relatively late. This article will explore how the concept of race took hold in China, particularly from the late 19th century onwards, and how it has influenced government policies and the governance of its diverse citizenry.

In imperial China, the dominant worldview, shaped by Confucian classics, emphasised culture over race. The world was ideally seen as a homogeneous unity, 'all under heaven' (tianxia), and groups not adhering to Confucian precepts were considered 'barbarians'. The focus was on cultural assimilation (yongxiabianyi, laihua, hanhua), with the belief that barbarians could be transformed through Chinese ways. While some classical texts contained sentiments that could be interpreted through a modern racial lens, such as the Zuozhuan's statement, 'If he is not of our race, he is sure to have a different mind', it is crucial to recognise that the sharp dichotomy between 'culture' and 'race' is a modern construct. Premodern perceptions of difference often intertwined physical and cultural characteristics. For instance, the Chinese elite developed a value system that favoured a white complexion, associating it with beauty, as evidenced in ancient poetry. However, these attitudes did not necessarily constitute a systematic racial discourse based on biological science.

The late 19th century marked a pivotal period with China's increasing interaction with the West and its devastating defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95. This period witnessed the introduction of European evolutionary theories and the concept of race as a scientific category. Reformers like Yan Fu were instrumental in translating and disseminating these ideas, presenting a world divided into a hierarchy of 'races' engaged in a struggle for survival. The idea of the 'yellow race' emerged in this context, with anxieties about racial extinction (miezhong) fuelled by observations of colonial expansion and the perceived decline of other 'races'. Liang Qichao further developed these ideas, envisioning a global 'racial war' (zhongzhan) between the 'yellow' and 'white' races. This discourse served to foster a sense of fictive biological cohesion and a shared lineage, symbolised by the Yellow Emperor as the common ancestor.

The early 20th century saw revolutionaries adopt and adapt the concept of race to build a national identity. They presented the Han as a distinct and pure 'race' (minzu, which conflated the idea of people with patrilineal descent), opposed to the ruling Manchus and foreign imperialists. Racial nationalism (minzuzhuyi) became a key principle, advocated by figures like Sun Yatsen, who viewed the Han as a largely pure race with a common bloodline, language, religion, and customs. This emphasis on a shared racial identity was seen as crucial for national unity and survival in a world perceived as dominated by racial competition.

During the Republican era (1912-1949), racial discourse expanded further, moving towards 'race as species' within the academic community. Anthropological studies, while often critical of European claims of racial superiority, nonetheless engaged with racial categorisation, seeking to define the origins and physical characteristics of the 'Chinese people'. The pseudo-science of eugenics also gained popularity among intellectuals, driven by concerns about 'racial degeneration' and the desire for 'race improvement'. This led to discussions about selective reproduction and the identification of 'superior' and 'inferior' elements within the population, sometimes along class lines.

Following the communist takeover in 1949, racial theories became officially taboo, with 'class' promoted as the primary unifying concept. Anthropology departments were even suspended for a time. However, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) did not entirely abandon the notion of a unified Han majority alongside various 'minority nationalities' (shaoshu minzu). While promoting equality between these groups, the official discourse often portrayed the Han as politically and culturally more advanced, with assimilationist tendencies evident in policies encouraging Han migration to minority regions. The borders of the People's Republic were largely based on those of the Qing empire, leading to minorities being classified as such within their traditional homelands.

Since the economic reforms of 1978, there has been a revival of biological science and extensive research on minority nationalities. A key focus has been on demonstrating the organic unity of all peoples within China under the umbrella of a single, relatively homogeneous 'Chinese nationality' (Zhonghua minzu), with the Han as the core. Serological and genetic studies have been used to highlight the biological proximity of minority groups to the Han, reinforcing the idea that the nation's political boundaries are founded on deep biological connections. This narrative often presents China as the 'homeland of the modern yellow race'.

The concept of race, therefore, has significantly twisted government policies towards governing citizens within China. Initially introduced as a tool to understand and compete with Western powers, it evolved into a cornerstone of national identity, particularly the notion of a unified Han race. This has had several consequences:

• Assimilationist Policies: The belief in a singular, albeit encompassing, 'Chinese nationality' has historically underpinned policies aimed at integrating minority groups into the Han-dominated mainstream, sometimes at the expense of their distinct cultures and languages.
• Defining National Boundaries: The idea of a shared biological lineage has been used to legitimise the current political borders of China, claiming a deep historical and even biological connection between diverse groups within these borders.
• Hierarchy and Development Narratives: The early racial discourse, influenced by evolutionary theories, often implied a hierarchy of 'races'. This persisted in communist-era narratives that subtly positioned the Han as more advanced, justifying their role in guiding minority development.
• Management of Ethnic Relations: While official policy promotes ethnic unity and equality, the underlying concept of a dominant Han 'race' and subordinate 'minorities' can create inherent power imbalances and contribute to tensions.
• Popular Racism: Despite official narratives of unity, the historical legacy of racial thinking and increased global interaction have contributed to the emergence of popular racism and discriminatory incidents, particularly towards non-East Asian foreigners.

In conclusion, the concept of race in China emerged through the lens of Western science in the late 19th century, evolving from anxieties about national survival to a foundation for national identity and state legitimacy. This concept, in its various forms, has profoundly influenced government policies towards its diverse population, shaping narratives of unity, driving assimilationist tendencies, and contributing to complex dynamics in ethnic relations, even as popular expressions of racial prejudice persist. The enduring influence of 'race', even under the guise of 'nationality', highlights its resilience as a social and political construct in modern China.