2026年1月6日 星期二

模糊邊界的代價:市場自由派對中國 75 年「公地」的批判

 

模糊邊界的代價:市場自由派對中國 75 年「公地」的批判

站在芝加哥學派(佛利民)的務實主義、米塞斯的行為學以及海耶克的信息論合成視角來看,中華人民共和國的歷史不僅僅是一連串的政策錯誤,它是一個長達 75 年的實驗室,證明了如果沒有明確定義且可轉讓的私有財產權,「悲劇」就是必然的終點。

診斷:為何中國陷入公地悲劇?

無論是大躍進時期的飢荒,還是 1990 年代的「癌症村」,其根源都在於**「所有權的幻覺」**。

  1. 計算問題(米塞斯): 在毛澤東時代,國家通過廢除市場摧毀了價格機制。沒有價格,就無法得知糧食或鋼鐵的真實價值。「公地」被過度開發,是因為沒有經濟計算來發出稀缺信號。

  2. 激勵缺口(芝加哥/佛利民): 「如果每個人都擁有它,就沒人擁有它。」「承包制」在環境上的失敗,是因為它將使用權剩餘索取權脫鉤。農民只是國家的「租客」。正如任何芝加哥學派經濟學家所知,租客有充分的動力在今天榨取最大價值,而完全沒有動力為明天的土地健康進行投資。

  3. 致命的自負(海耶克): 城市空間的中央規劃和「共享單車」熱潮之所以失敗,是因為規劃者陷入了「致命的自負」——認為他們可以比市場的自發秩序更好地管理「公地」。結果導致了大規模的資本錯誤配置(單車墳場)。

給全球經濟的教訓:如何避免陷阱

為了避免中國式的資源枯竭循環,其他國家必須採納三大支柱:

  • 「剩餘權利」的全面私有化: 超越「合同」或「租賃」。只有當個人擁有資源(土地、水或大氣排放權)的未來價值時,他們才會去保護它。

  • 外部性定價: 在必須存在「公地」的地方(如大氣層),芝加哥學派建議採用基於市場的定價(如皮古稅或可交易許可證),將目前轉嫁給公眾的成本內部化。

  • 去中心化的知識: 信任當地的「現場人員」(海耶克)。環境管理不應是來自首都的自上而下的命令,而應是當地所有者為了保護自身資產價值而產生的結果。


The Price of Blurred Borders: A Market-Liberal Critique of China’s 75-Year "Commons"

 

The Price of Blurred Borders: A Market-Liberal Critique of China’s 75-Year "Commons"

From the perspective of a synthesized school of Chicago School pragmatism (Friedman), Misesian praxeology, and Hayekian information theory, the history of the People's Republic of China is not just a series of policy errors—it is a 75-year laboratory proving that without clearly defined, transferable private property rights, "tragedy" is the inevitable default.

The Diagnostic: Why China Collapsed into the Commons

Whether it was the starvation of the Great Leap Forward or the "Cancer Villages" of the 1990s, the root cause was the "Illusion of Ownership."

  1. The Calculation Problem (Mises): In the Mao era, by abolishing the market, the state destroyed the price mechanism. Without prices, there was no way to know the true value of grain or steel. The "Commons" was exploited because there was no economic calculation to signal scarcity.

  2. The Incentive Gap (Chicago/Friedman): "If everyone owns it, nobody owns it." The 承包 (Contract) system failed environmentally because it decoupled use rights from residual claimancy. Farmers were "renters" of the state. As any Chicago economist knows, a renter has every incentive to extract maximum value today and zero incentive to invest in the soil's health for tomorrow.

  3. Fatal Conceit (Hayek): The central planning of urban spaces and the "Bike Sharing" boom failed because planners suffered from the "Fatal Conceit"—the belief that they could manage the "Commons" better than the spontaneous order of the market. The result was massive capital malinvestment (Bicycle Graveyards).

Lessons for Global Economies: Avoiding the Trap

To avoid the Chinese cycle of depletion, other nations must adopt three fundamental pillars:

  • Total Privatization of "Residual" Rights: Move beyond "contracts" or "leases." Only when an individual owns the future value of a resource (land, water, or air rights) will they preserve it.

  • Pricing the Externalities: Where a "Commons" must exist (like the atmosphere), the Chicago approach suggests market-based pricing (Pigouvian taxes or tradable permits) to internalize costs that are currently being dumped on the public.

  • Decentralized Knowledge: Trust the local "man on the spot" (Hayek). Environmental management should not be a top-down decree from a capital city but a result of local owners protecting their own asset values.


公地悲劇的循環:中國 75 年來的資源博弈

 

公地悲劇的循環:中國 75 年來的資源博弈

自 1949 年以來,中國在極端集體所有制與快速私有化之間擺盪。雖然這些階段表面上看起來截然不同,但它們都有一個共同的主線:即「公地悲劇」——個人(或官員)過度開發共享資源,直到其崩潰。

1. 毛澤東時代: 「無所有權」的悲劇

在毛澤東時代,國家廢除了私有財產,將整個國家變成了一個「公地」。

  • 大躍進(1958-1962): 當村民被強行編入人民公社時,「公共食堂」演變成了一場字面意義上的悲劇。因為食物是免費且「共享」的,人們立即吃光了所有東西。由於沒有人對糧食供應負個人責任,「公地」迅速枯竭,這成了大饑荒的誘因之一。

  • 土法煉鋼: 為了完成鋼鐵指標,人們熔化了自己的工具和公社資源來生產無用的生鐵。為了給這些熔爐提供燃料,森林(共享資源)被砍伐殆盡,這是為了短期政治「利益」而破壞公共資源的典型案例。

2. 鄧小平與江澤民時代: 「承包制」的悲劇

鄧小平的家庭聯產承包責任制被認為挽救了經濟,但它也創造了新版的公地悲劇。

  • 短期行為: 農民根據短期合同獲得土地。因為他們並不永久「擁有」土地,所以沒有動力去維護土壤肥力。為了在合同結束前最大化產量,他們大量使用化肥,導致土地酸化和地下水污染。

  • 鄉鎮企業: 1990 年代,地方工廠遍地開花。由於河流是「公共」財產,每家工廠都排放有毒廢物以節省成本。結果出現了「癌症村」現象——經濟利益是私人的,但環境代價卻由公眾共同承擔。

3. 胡錦濤與習近平時代: 高科技與城市空間的悲劇

即使中國成為全球超級大國,公地悲劇也轉移到了新的領域。

  • 共享單車的崩潰(2017): 在胡與習時代,Ofo 和摩拜等公司將數百萬輛單車湧入城市人行道。因為人行道是公共空間,而單車是「共享」的,使用者並不愛惜,公司也過度投放。這導致了阻塞公共廣場的「單車墳場」。

  • 房地產泡沫: 地方政府依賴出讓土地(一種有限的公共資源)來維持財政。這導致了「鬼城」的出現——為了短期的 GDP 增長而過度開發土地,給下一代留下了沉重的債務負擔。


The Cycle of the Commons: China’s 75-Year Struggle with Shared Resources

 

The Cycle of the Commons: China’s 75-Year Struggle with Shared Resources

Since 1949, China has swung between extreme collective ownership and rapid privatization. While these phases look different on the surface, they share a common thread: the "Tragedy of the Commons," where individuals (or officials) exploit a shared resource until it collapses.

1. The Mao Era: The Tragedy of "No Ownership"

Under Mao Zedong, the state abolished private property, turning the entire nation into a "commons."

  • The Great Leap Forward (1958-1962): When villagers were forced into People's Communes, the "Common Mess Halls" became a literal tragedy. Because food was free and "shared," people ate everything immediately. With no individual responsibility for the grain supply, the "commons" was depleted, contributing to the Great Famine.

  • Backyard Furnaces: To meet steel quotas, people melted down their own tools and communal resources to produce useless pig iron. The shared environment—forests and timber—was stripped bare to fuel these furnaces, a classic destruction of a common resource for short-term political "gain."

2. The Deng & Jiang Era: The "Contract" Tragedy (承包制)

Deng Xiaoping’s Household Responsibility System (家庭聯產承包責任制) is credited with saving the economy, but it created a new version of the tragedy.

  • Short-Termism: Farmers were given land on short-term contracts. Because they did not own the land permanently,they had no incentive to maintain soil health. They used massive amounts of chemical fertilizers to maximize yield before the contract ended, leading to widespread soil acidification and groundwater pollution.

  • Village Enterprises (TVEs): In the 1990s, local factories popped up everywhere. Since the rivers were "common" property, every factory dumped toxic waste into them to save costs. The result was the "Cancer Village" phenomenon—the economic gain was private, but the environmental cost was shared by the public.

3. The Hu & Xi Era: The Tragedy of High-Tech and Urban Space

Even as China became a global superpower, the tragedy moved into new sectors.

  • The Bike-Sharing Collapse (2017): Under Hu and then Xi, companies like Ofo and Mobike flooded city sidewalks with millions of bikes. Because the "sidewalk" was a common public space and the bikes were "shared," users treated them with no care, and companies over-saturated the market. This led to "Bicycle Graveyards" that choked public squares.

  • The Real Estate Bubble: Local governments relied on selling land (a finite common resource) to fund their budgets. This led to "Ghost Cities"—over-exploitation of the land for short-term GDP growth, leaving a massive debt burden for the next generation.


共有地悲劇〉不是人性貪婪,而是錯誤的系統設計

 

〈共有地悲劇〉不是人性貪婪,而是錯誤的系統設計

人本質上是善良的,只有錯誤的衡量制度才會逼人做出錯誤決策

只要提到「共有地悲劇(Tragedy of the Commons)」,多數人的結論幾乎是直覺反射式的:

「人是自私的,只要資源是共享的,就一定會被掠奪殆盡。」

Dr. Yung-mei Tsai 在課堂中設計的模擬實驗,經常被用來證明這個觀點:
學生在理性選擇下過度採集資源,最終導致資源崩潰,所有人都成為輸家。

但這個結論是錯的,至少是極度危險的不完整

悲劇的根源不是貪婪,而是系統如何被設計、如何被衡量、以及獎勵了什麼行為。

從 限制理論(TOC) 的角度來看,這個實驗反而清楚地證明了一件事:

人本來就是好人,是錯誤的衡量制度逼好人做壞事。


實驗中真正發生了什麼?

在模擬中,每位參與者每回合可以從共享資源中拿走 0~2 個單位。
資源會根據剩餘量進行「繁殖」。一開始禁止溝通。

大多數小組很快就耗盡了資源。

表面解釋是:

  • 人太自私

  • 每個人只顧自己

  • 合作不可靠

但如果仔細觀察,你會發現參與者其實在做的是:

  • 合理的決策

  • 面對不確定性時的自我保護

  • 根據遊戲規則與隱含獎勵進行最佳化

不是道德失敗,而是在一個設計不良的系統中,做出完全合理的行為


真正的錯誤:把「個人成功」誤當成「系統成功」

這個實驗真正的問題不在人性,而在於局部最佳化(Local Optima)

每個參與者其實都在被隱性衡量:
-「這一輪我拿了多少?」

沒有人被衡量:

  • 系統長期總產出

  • 資源是否能永續

  • 整體是否成功

用 TOC 的語言來說:

  • 這個系統有一個明確的限制(資源的再生能力)

  • 沒有人被要求保護它

  • 所以它必然被破壞

這正是企業與社會每天都在重複的錯誤。


為什麼這不是貪婪?

如果真的是貪婪,那麼溝通不可能解決問題

但在實驗中,只要允許溝通:

  • 規則自然產生

  • 公平機制出現

  • 資源開始穩定甚至成長

  • 每個人長期獲得更多

貪婪的人不會突然變高尚。

只有壞系統,在被重新設計後,才會停止製造壞結果。


真正的反派:衡量制度(KPI)

TOC 有一句極其殘酷但準確的話:

告訴我你怎麼衡量我,我就告訴你我會怎麼行為。

在這個模擬中:

  • 短期多拿 = 看起來成功

  • 系統崩潰 = 沒有人負責

  • 長期總產出 = 完全沒人衡量

這與現實世界的 KPI 驚人地相似:

  • 部門效率

  • 個人獎金

  • 使用率

  • 季度目標

單看都合理,合在一起卻摧毀整個系統


全域目標 vs 局部 KPI

當系統被重新設計為:

  • 明確的全域目標

  • 個人行為必須服從該目標

  • 限制被保護

  • 成功在系統層級衡量

參與者的行為自然改變。

不是因為他們「變好」,
而是因為系統終於允許他們一起成功


人不是問題,系統才是

限制理論有一個核心信念:

怪罪人,是最懶惰的思考方式。

共有地悲劇不是證明:

  • 人性自私

  • 合作困難

  • 必須高度管控

它真正證明的是:

  • 錯誤的衡量會創造破壞性行為

  • 局部最佳化會導致全局失敗

  • 系統設計比價值觀更能塑造行為


為什麼這個觀點如此重要?

企業每天都在「摧毀共有地」:

  • 業務破壞營運

  • 成本削減破壞產出

  • 效率破壞流動

  • 獎金破壞合作

然後管理者責怪:

  • 文化

  • 態度

  • 不夠努力

但真正的原因幾乎永遠只有一個:

我們獎勵局部最佳化,卻期待全域成功。

期待不是策略。


共有地悲劇的真正教訓

悲劇不是必然的。

它是被設計出來的

而凡是被設計的,就可以被重新設計。

當系統:

  • 以全域目標為核心

  • 保護限制

  • 獎勵整體成功

人們自然會展現出看似合作、道德、甚至慷慨的行為。

不是因為人變了,
而是因為系統終於對了。


The Tragedy of the Commons Is Not About Greed — It Is About Bad System Design

 

The Tragedy of the Commons Is Not About Greed — It Is About Bad System Design

Why People Are Good, and Only Bad Measurements Make Them Do Bad Things

When people hear The Tragedy of the Commons, the dominant conclusion is almost automatic:

“People are greedy. If left alone, they will destroy shared resources.”

Dr. Yung-mei Tsai’s classroom simulation is often cited as proof of this belief. Students, acting rationally, over-harvest a shared resource until it collapses. The commons dies. Everyone loses.

But this conclusion is wrong — or at least dangerously incomplete.

The tragedy does not arise from greed.
It arises from how the system is designedwhat is measured, and what is rewarded.

When viewed through the lens of the Theory of Constraints (TOC), Tsai’s simulation becomes powerful evidence of a very different truth:

People are fundamentally good. Systems that reward local optimization create destructive behavior.


What Actually Happens in the Simulation

In the simulation, each participant is allowed to take up to two items from a shared resource pool per round. The pool regenerates based on what remains. Early rounds forbid communication.

Most groups rapidly destroy the resource.

The usual interpretation:

  • Students are selfish

  • Individuals prioritize themselves

  • Cooperation is fragile

But observe more carefully what participants are actually doing.

Each player is:

  • Acting rationally

  • Responding to uncertainty

  • Protecting themselves from loss

  • Optimizing according to the rules and incentives provided

This is not moral failure.
This is logical behavior in a poorly designed system.


The Core Mistake: Confusing Local Success with Global Success

The real problem in the simulation is not human nature — it is local optimization.

Each participant is implicitly measured on:

  • “How many items did I collect this round?”

No one is measured on:

  • Total system output over time

  • Sustainability of the resource

  • Collective success

In TOC terms:

  • The system has a constraint (the regeneration capacity of the commons)

  • The players are not measured on protecting it

  • Therefore, they unknowingly destroy it

This is exactly what happens in organizations every day.


Why This Is Not Greed

Greed implies excess beyond rational need.

But in the simulation:

  • Players take more because not taking feels risky

  • Players fear others will take instead

  • Players respond to a measurement system that rewards immediate extraction

If greed were the cause, communication would not fix the problem.

Yet when communication is allowed:

  • Groups quickly self-organize

  • Fair rules emerge

  • The resource stabilizes

  • Everyone earns more over time

Greedy people do not suddenly stop being greedy.

Bad systems do stop producing bad outcomes when redesigned.


The Role of Measurement: The Real Villain

TOC teaches a simple but uncomfortable truth:

Tell me how you measure me, and I will tell you how I behave.

In the simulation:

  • Individuals are rewarded implicitly for short-term extraction

  • There is no penalty for system collapse

  • There is no metric for long-term throughput

This mirrors real-world KPIs:

  • Departmental efficiency

  • Individual bonuses

  • Utilization rates

  • Quarterly targets

Each looks reasonable in isolation.

Together, they destroy the system.


Global Goal vs. Local KPIs

The tragedy disappears the moment the system is redesigned so that:

  • The global goal is explicit

  • Individual actions are subordinated to that goal

  • The constraint is protected

  • Success is measured at the system level

When participants align around:

“Maximize total benefit over time for everyone”

Their behavior changes — without changing who they are.

This is the most important lesson of the simulation.


People Are Not the Problem

TOC insists on this principle:

Blaming people is lazy thinking. Improve the system.

The tragedy of the commons is not evidence that:

  • People are selfish

  • Cooperation is unnatural

  • Control is required

It is evidence that:

  • Poor measurements create destructive incentives

  • Local KPIs generate global failure

  • Systems shape behavior more powerfully than values


Why This Matters Beyond the Classroom

Organizations collapse commons every day:

  • Sales destroys operations

  • Cost cutting destroys throughput

  • Efficiency destroys flow

  • Bonuses destroy collaboration

Leaders then blame:

  • Culture

  • Attitude

  • Motivation

But the real cause is almost always the same:

We reward local optima and hope for global success.

Hope is not a strategy.


The Real Lesson of the Tragedy of the Commons

The tragedy is not inevitable.

It is designed.

And anything designed can be redesigned.

When systems:

  • Align measurements with the global goal

  • Protect the constraint

  • Reward collective success

People naturally behave in ways that look cooperative, ethical, and even generous.

Not because they changed —
but because the system finally allowed them to succeed together.


共享資源與個人私慾:蔡勇美博士與「公地悲劇」

 

共享資源與個人私慾:蔡勇美博士與「公地悲劇」

想像一個美麗的社區花園。如果每個人都只摘取自己需要的量,花園就會生意盎然。但如果有人決定多摘一些去賣,其他人為了不「吃虧」也紛紛效仿,幾天之內花園就會被洗劫一空。這就是**「公地悲劇」(Tragedy of the Commons)**——一個定義了許多現代危機的社會與經濟陷阱。

認識蔡勇美博士 (Dr. Yung-mei Tsai)

為了讓學生和公眾理解這種複雜的人類行為,任教於德州理工大學(Texas Tech University)的著名社會學教授蔡勇美博士在1993年發表了一篇具里程碑意義的論文。蔡博士是都市社會學和社會心理學的專家,致力於揭示社會結構如何影響個人選擇。他的研究將抽象理論轉化為切身經驗,其中最著名的便是他的課堂模擬遊戲。

什麼是「公地悲劇」?

這一理論最早由加勒特·哈丁(Garrett Hardin)提出,意指在一個共享資源系統中,每個個體都基於自身的利益獨立行事,最終會耗盡該資源。儘管大家都知道資源耗盡對任何人長期都沒有好處,但短期私慾往往戰勝了集體理性。

日常生活中的例子:

  • 辦公室公共冰箱: 每個人都使用,但沒人清理。最終冰箱變得骯髒不堪,因為每個人都假設「別人」會清理,自己只需繼續存放食物。

  • 公共 Wi-Fi: 當咖啡館裡的每個人都同時串流 4K 影片時,「共享」的頻寬就會崩潰,結果誰也發不出郵件。

  • 交通擁堵: 每個司機都選擇 GPS 顯示「最快」的路線。當每個人都做出同樣的自私選擇時,那條路就變成了停車場。

  • 過度捕撈: 如果一艘漁船為了增加利潤捕撈更多的魚,其他船隻也會跟進以求競爭。很快,魚群數量崩潰,所有漁民都失去生計。


遊戲規則:蔡博士的課堂模擬

蔡博士在1993年設計的模擬實驗為參與者提供了強大的啟發。玩法如下:

準備工作:

  1. 資源池: 小組(4-5人)中間放一個碗,裝有16個「資源」(如糖果、餅乾或代幣)。

  2. 目標: 收集盡可能多的代幣。

  3. 回合: 每一輪,玩家可以從碗中拿取 0、1、2 或 3 個代幣。

  4. 再生規則(關鍵): 每一輪結束時,指導員會將碗中剩餘的代幣數量翻倍(最高不超過初始的16個)。

典型的結果:

  • 第一階段(禁止交流): 玩家通常會因為擔心被別人拿光而立刻抓取 3 個代幣。碗在第一輪結束前就空了,資源「枯竭」,無法再生。所有人最終都失去了長期的供應。

  • 第二階段(允許交流): 玩家開始溝通,發現如果每個人每輪只拿 1 個代幣,碗裡的數量就能維持健康並每輪翻倍,大家永遠都有得吃。

核心教訓: 蔡勇美博士透過實驗證明,如果沒有溝通或共同規則,個人的理性選擇將導致集體的毀滅。合作不僅僅是「美德」,更是一種生存策略。