The Five Congregations: French Colonial Strategy and the Governance of Overseas Chinese in Vietnam

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 The Mechanics of Indirect Rule

Introduction

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, French colonial authorities in Vietnam faced a unique administrative challenge: managing a vast, economically powerful, and culturally distinct population of Overseas Chinese. To maintain order while extracting economic value, the French refined a traditional organizational structure into a formal system of indirect rule known as the "Five Congregations" (Les Cinq Congrégations).

The Structure of the Five Congregations

As detailed in the memoirs of Chen Tianjie, the French categorized all Chinese residents in Vietnam into five "Bangs" (Congregations) based on their ancestral dialects and regions of origin:

1. The Fujian (Hokkien) Congregation

2. The Guangzhou (Cantonese) Congregation

3. The Chaozhou (Teochew) Congregation

4. The Hainan (Hainanese) Congregation

5. The Hakka (Kek) Congregation

Mechanisms of Control: The "Bang" System in Practice

The French colonial government utilized these congregations as a dual-purpose tool for both administrative convenience and social surveillance:

• Collective Responsibility: Every Chinese immigrant was legally required to belong to one of the five congregations. The congregation was responsible for the behavior and debts of its members. If a member committed a crime or fled, the congregation was held accountable.

• The Headman (Chef de Congrégation): Each Bang elected a leader, whose appointment required official French approval. This headman acted as the intermediary between the colonial state and the Chinese community, handling tax collection and legal disputes.

• Welfare and Infrastructure: The French delegated social services to these groups. Consequently, each Bang established its own hospitals, cemeteries, temples, and schools (such as the Suicheng School founded by the Cantonese Bang).

• Entry and Exit Control: The congregations managed the arrival of new migrants from China, ensuring they had proper documentation and "guarantors" before they could legally reside or work in Vietnam.

Quotable Quotes on the "Bang" System

"The French government adopted the 'Five Bangs' system to manage Overseas Chinese... nominally they were self-governing, but in reality, they were a tool for colonial surveillance and tax extraction."

"In administrative matters, the French only dealt with the headman of each congregation; the headman was the one who guaranteed the loyalty of the thousand."

Conclusion

The Five Congregations system was a masterclass in colonial pragmatism. While it provided the Chinese community with a degree of autonomy and self-preservation, it also ensured that the French could govern a large foreign population with minimal administrative overhead.

 

Echoes of a Decade in Annam: A Journey Through Chen Tianjie’s Memoirs

A Decade of Discovery in Indochina

Introduction

"Memories of Ten Years in Vietnam (Annam)" is a poignant memoir by Chen Tianjie, reflecting on his life in Cholon and Saigon between 1922 and 1931. Arriving at the age of sixteen, Chen captures a pivotal era when the Chinese diaspora deeply influenced the social and economic landscape of French-controlled Vietnam.

The Structural Fabric: A Table of Contents Analysis

The memoir is organized into several thematic sections that paint a comprehensive picture of the "Nanyang" experience:

1. Historical Overview of Overseas Chinese in Vietnam: A look at the transition from "Central Plains migrants" during the Qin and Han dynasties to the political refugees of the Ming-Qing transition.

2. The Rise of Cholon (Ti'an): How a desolate riverbank was transformed into a bustling commercial hub by Chinese settlers fleeing the turmoil of the Tay Son rebellion.

3. Governance under the French: Details on the "Bang" (Congregation) system, where the French utilized five Chinese dialect groups (Fujian, Cantonese, Teochew, Hainanese, and Hakka) for administrative control.

4. Economic Contributions: The dominance of Chinese merchants in the rice industry, particularly the "Five Big Rice Mills" that fueled the local economy.

5. Education and Culture: The establishment of schools like the Suicheng School and the preservation of Chinese traditions in a colonial setting.

6. Social Customs and Anecdotes: Unique cultural observations, including the "La Liao" (grass hut) childbirth customs and the legendary efficacy of Chinese medicine.

Quotable Quotes: Wisdom and Observation

Chen’s writing is noted for its sincerity and its focus on the symbiotic relationship between the Chinese and Vietnamese people.

On the Origins of Cholon: "The place now known as Cholon was originally a deserted area of weeds and marshes... Chinese merchants built embankments, constructed streets, and gathered there for trade, hence the name 'Ti'an' (Embankment)."

On the Unity of the Diaspora: "Among the five 'Bangs', although they were established separately, they frequently communicated and helped one another in public welfare and disaster relief."

On the Efficacy of Traditional Medicine: "Even some French people believed that Chinese medicine and herbs possessed an 'inconceivable divine effect'." — Regarding the story of a teacher who saved his leg from amputation thanks to a Chinese bone-setter.

On Cultural Integration: "Vietnamese people saw that Chinese families gave birth within their own homes, and they were gradually influenced to eliminate the superstition [of the grass huts]."

Conclusion

Chen Tianjie’s memoir serves as a vital historical bridge, reminding us that the story of the Overseas Chinese in Vietnam is one of resilience, innovation, and profound cultural exchange. 

Collateral Damage: The Plight of Overseas Chinese Amidst the 1947 Franco-Vietnamese Conflict

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[Table of Contents: Observations of a Turbulent Era]

This report provides a detailed analysis of the dramatic changes in the Vietnamese political situation after World War II and the predicament of the Overseas Chinese caught between the French army and the Viet Minh. The structural framework is as follows:

1. The World's Most Unfortunate People: The article opens by stating that the most difficult group in the world at that time was the Chinese, especially the Overseas Chinese trapped in the flames of war in Vietnam.

2. Composition of the Federation of Indochina: An educational overview of the political geography of Vietnam at the time, consisting of Tonkin (North), Annam (Central), Cochinchina (South), Cambodia, and Laos, while clarifying the correct translation and origin of "Viet Minh."

3. Vietnam in a State of Terror: A description of how, following the outbreak of conflict in Hanoi, the entire territory of Vietnam—except for the kingdoms of Cambodia and Laos—fell into chaos, with land and sea transportation completely severed.

4. Heavy Losses for Overseas Chinese:

   • Loss of Property: Under the French "scorched earth policy" and the sweeps conducted by the Viet Minh, the life savings of Overseas Chinese vanished into thin air.

   • Personal Safety: Tens of thousands of Overseas Chinese became refugees, forced to trek hundreds of miles through the wilderness to survive.

   • Innocent Suffering: Overseas Chinese were not participants in the war, yet they became the primary victims.

5. Obstacles on the Path Home: Records the journey of individuals like Hu Zhiyuan, an aviation technical talent studying in France, who encountered war-torn obstacles while returning home and endured many dangers before reaching the motherland.

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[Quotable Quotes: A Survival Elegy Amidst War]

The report uses precise and emotional language to vividly depict the despair of the Overseas Chinese at that time:

On the Dilemma of Identity: "Currently, the most unfortunate people in the world are the Chinese, and especially unfortunate are the Overseas Chinese in Vietnam."

On the Nature of War: "For the Overseas Chinese, the war in Vietnam is purely a case of 'the city gate catching fire and the fish in the moat suffering'; they are innocent victims."

On the Scorched Earth Desolation: "The shops operated by the blood and sweat of Overseas Chinese throughout their lives have vanished in the sound of gunfire, or have been looted by mobs."

On the Flight of Refugees: "Thousands upon thousands of Overseas Chinese have become refugees, displaced; some have walked hundreds of miles in the wilderness before reaching a safe zone."