The Five Congregations: French Colonial Strategy and the Governance of Overseas Chinese in Vietnam

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 The Mechanics of Indirect Rule

Introduction

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, French colonial authorities in Vietnam faced a unique administrative challenge: managing a vast, economically powerful, and culturally distinct population of Overseas Chinese. To maintain order while extracting economic value, the French refined a traditional organizational structure into a formal system of indirect rule known as the "Five Congregations" (Les Cinq Congrégations).

The Structure of the Five Congregations

As detailed in the memoirs of Chen Tianjie, the French categorized all Chinese residents in Vietnam into five "Bangs" (Congregations) based on their ancestral dialects and regions of origin:

1. The Fujian (Hokkien) Congregation

2. The Guangzhou (Cantonese) Congregation

3. The Chaozhou (Teochew) Congregation

4. The Hainan (Hainanese) Congregation

5. The Hakka (Kek) Congregation

Mechanisms of Control: The "Bang" System in Practice

The French colonial government utilized these congregations as a dual-purpose tool for both administrative convenience and social surveillance:

• Collective Responsibility: Every Chinese immigrant was legally required to belong to one of the five congregations. The congregation was responsible for the behavior and debts of its members. If a member committed a crime or fled, the congregation was held accountable.

• The Headman (Chef de Congrégation): Each Bang elected a leader, whose appointment required official French approval. This headman acted as the intermediary between the colonial state and the Chinese community, handling tax collection and legal disputes.

• Welfare and Infrastructure: The French delegated social services to these groups. Consequently, each Bang established its own hospitals, cemeteries, temples, and schools (such as the Suicheng School founded by the Cantonese Bang).

• Entry and Exit Control: The congregations managed the arrival of new migrants from China, ensuring they had proper documentation and "guarantors" before they could legally reside or work in Vietnam.

Quotable Quotes on the "Bang" System

"The French government adopted the 'Five Bangs' system to manage Overseas Chinese... nominally they were self-governing, but in reality, they were a tool for colonial surveillance and tax extraction."

"In administrative matters, the French only dealt with the headman of each congregation; the headman was the one who guaranteed the loyalty of the thousand."

Conclusion

The Five Congregations system was a masterclass in colonial pragmatism. While it provided the Chinese community with a degree of autonomy and self-preservation, it also ensured that the French could govern a large foreign population with minimal administrative overhead.