history

2025年11月14日星期五

以孔飛力的「歷史三調」解析脫歐：事件、經驗與神話

英國退出歐洲聯盟（脫歐，Brexit）的決定，可謂是現代英國史上最重大的政治事件。如同義和團運動一樣，它不僅僅是一系列事實的集合，而是一個複雜的現象，我們對它的理解受到其即時發展、參與者的多元經驗，以及後續圍繞它建構的敘事的影響。套用**孔飛力（Paul A. Cohen）在《歷史三調》**中的框架，我們可以對脫歐持久的史學分析進行剖析。

第一調：作為「事件」的脫歐

這個「調」著重於構成脫歐行為和決策的可驗證順序。它是事實的年表：

2016年公投： 舉行公投的政治決定、公投前的宣傳運動，以及51.9%的脫歐投票結果。
啟動《里斯本條約》第50條： 向歐盟發出英國退出意圖的正式通知。
談判： 英國與歐盟之間就退出條款、未來貿易關係以及北愛爾蘭議定書進行的漫長且往往充滿爭議的談判。
退出和貿易協定： 簽署和批准各種條約，這些條約使英國合法地與歐盟分離，並確立了新的貿易關係。
關鍵人物： 首相（卡梅倫、梅伊、強森、特拉斯、蘇納克）、歐盟官員（巴尼耶、容克、馮德萊恩）以及他們在整個過程中的各自角色。

這個「調」旨在提供一個客觀、事實性的描述，說明脫歐過程從開始到其當前的法律和經濟現實中「實際發生了什麼」。

第二調：作為「經驗」的脫歐

除了赤裸的事實之外，這個「調」探討了數百萬個人對脫歐深具主觀性和往往充滿情感的「經驗」。它深入研究了人們理解、感受和應對這些變化的多種方式：

脫歐派選民的經驗： 重新獲得主權、收回控制權、擺脫繁重法規，以及解決如不受控制的移民等感知問題的感覺。這往往源於一種被全球化拋在後面，以及感到在政治建制中沒有代表權的感覺。
留歐派選民的經驗： 感到失落、被背叛、對經濟穩定擔憂、失去遷徙自由，以及對英國國際地位和未來擔憂。這通常包括悲傷、憤怒和對自己國家決定的疏離感。
企業主的經驗： 適應新的海關檢查、貿易壁壘、供應鏈的變化以及勞動力短缺。
在英國的歐盟公民／在歐盟的英國公民： 應對新的移民規則、居留申請以及對他們未來身份和權利的焦慮。
北愛爾蘭： 北愛爾蘭議定書的複雜且往往痛苦的經驗，影響著身份認同、貿易與和平。

這個「調」旨在理解脫歐所創造的生活現實、個人故事以及多變的情感景觀，超越匯總的民意調查數據，觸及事件的人文層面。

第三調：作為「神話」的脫歐

這個「調」檢視了脫歐如何被解釋、重新解釋和有選擇地銘記，以服務於各種政治、經濟和文化議程。這些敘事往往將複雜的現實簡化為引人注目、但經常產生分裂的故事：

「全球英國」神話： 脫歐後出現了一種敘事，將英國定位為一個靈活、獨立的全球參與者，在全球範圍內締結新的貿易協定，擺脫歐盟官僚機構的約束。這個神話強調未來的潛力和民族自豪感。
「破碎英國」神話： 相反，脫歐的批評者經常將其定性為一場災難性的國家錯誤，導致經濟衰退、國際影響力下降和社會分裂。這種敘事經常將廣泛的國家挑戰歸咎於脫歐。
「人民的意願」神話： 這種常被脫歐派援引的敘事，堅稱公投結果是對民主意願的明確表達，必須受到最高的尊重，通常駁回要求與歐盟建立更緊密關係的呼籲。
「布魯塞爾官僚」神話： 一種持續存在的敘事，將歐盟描繪為一個不民主、過度擴權的官僚怪物，從而證明英國退出的必要性。

這些「神話」力量強大，塑造著公共話語、影響著政治修辭，並鞏固了根深蒂固的身份認同（脫歐派與留歐派）。它們所代表的不僅僅是歷史，而是一個充滿爭議的未來。

透過應用孔飛力的「歷史三調」，我們對脫歐有了更細緻入微的理解，認識到它不僅是一系列政治策略，更是一場深刻的社會斷裂，其意義仍有待持續詮釋和重新定義。

Brexit Through Cohen's Three Keys: Event, Experience, and Myth

The United Kingdom's decision to leave the European Union – Brexit – is arguably the most significant political event in modern British history. Like the Boxer Rebellion, it is not merely a collection of facts, but a complex phenomenon whose understanding has been shaped by its immediate unfolding, the diverse experiences of those involved, and the subsequent narratives constructed around it. Applying Paul A. Cohen's framework from History in Three Keys allows us to dissect Brexit's lasting historiography.

Key One: Brexit as Event

This key focuses on the verifiable sequence of actions and decisions that constitute Brexit. It's the factual chronology:

The 2016 Referendum: The political decision to hold the referendum, the campaign leading up to it, and the 51.9% vote to Leave.
Article 50 Trigger: The formal notification to the EU of the UK's intention to withdraw.
Negotiations: The protracted and often acrimonious negotiations between the UK and the EU regarding withdrawal terms, future trade relationships, and the Northern Ireland Protocol.
Withdrawal and Trade Agreements: The signing and ratification of the various treaties that legally separated the UK from the EU and established a new trading relationship.
Key Actors: The prime ministers (Cameron, May, Johnson, Truss, Sunak), EU officials (Barnier, Juncker, Von der Leyen), and their respective roles in the process. This key aims to provide an objective, factual account of "what actually happened" throughout the Brexit process, from its inception to its current legal and economic realities.

Key Two: Brexit as Experience

Beyond the bare facts, this key explores the deeply subjective and often emotional "experience" of Brexit for millions of individuals. It delves into the diverse ways people understood, felt, and responded to the changes:

Leave Voters' Experience: The feeling of reclaiming sovereignty, taking back control, escaping burdensome regulations, and addressing perceived issues like uncontrolled immigration. This often stemmed from a sense of being left behind by globalization and feeling unrepresented by the political establishment.
Remain Voters' Experience: The sense of loss, betrayal, concern for economic stability, loss of freedom of movement, and worries about the UK's international standing and future. This often included feelings of grief,anger, and alienation from their own country's decision.
Business Owners' Experience: Adapting to new customs checks, trade barriers, changes in supply chains, and labor shortages.
EU Citizens in the UK / UK Citizens in the EU: Navigating new immigration rules, residency applications, and anxieties about their future status and rights.
Northern Ireland: The complex and often painful experience of the Northern Ireland Protocol, impacting identity,trade, and peace. This key seeks to understand the lived realities, the personal stories, and the varied emotional landscapes that Brexit created, moving beyond aggregated polling data to the human dimension of the event.

Key Three: Brexit as Myth

This key examines how Brexit has been, and continues to be, interpreted, reinterpreted, and selectively remembered to serve various political, economic, and cultural agendas. These narratives often simplify complex realities into compelling,yet frequently divisive, stories:

The "Global Britain" Myth: Post-Brexit, a narrative emerged positioning the UK as a nimble, independent global player, forging new trade deals worldwide and free from the constraints of EU bureaucracy. This myth emphasizes future potential and national pride.
The "Broken Britain" Myth: Conversely, critics of Brexit frequently frame it as a catastrophic national error,leading to economic decline, reduced international influence, and societal division. This narrative often blames Brexit for a wide range of national challenges.
The "Will of the People" Myth: This narrative, often invoked by Brexiteers, asserts that the referendum result was an unequivocal expression of democratic will that must be respected above all else, often dismissing calls for closer ties with the EU.
The "Brussels Bureaucracy" Myth: A persistent narrative portraying the EU as an undemocratic, overreaching bureaucratic monster, justifying the need for the UK's departure. These "myths" are powerful, shaping public discourse, influencing political rhetoric, and cementing deeply entrenched identities (Leave vs. Remain). They represent not just history, but a contested future.

By applying Cohen's three keys, we gain a more nuanced understanding of Brexit, recognizing it not only as a series of political maneuvers but also as a profound societal rupture whose meaning remains subject to ongoing interpretation and reinterpretation.

Unpacking the Past: Paul Cohen's "History in Three Keys" and the Boxer Rebellion's Enduring Legacy

The Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901) stands as a pivotal, often misunderstood, moment in Chinese history. While many historical accounts simply narrate the events, Paul A. Cohen's influential 1997 book, History in Three Keys: The Boxers as Event, Experience, and Myth, offers a profound methodological framework for understanding not just what happened, but how we remember and interpret it. Cohen invites us to view history not as a monolithic truth, but as a complex interplay of objective facts, subjective realities, and evolving narratives.

Key One: The Boxers as Event

The first "key" focuses on the Boxer Uprising as a set of verifiable occurrences. This is the realm of traditional historical narration: the who, what, when, and where. Cohen meticulously reconstructs the sequence of actions: the rise of the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists, their anti-foreign and anti-Christian violence, the Qing court's fateful decision to endorse the Boxers, the siege of foreign legations in Beijing, and the subsequent intervention by the Eight-Nation Alliance. This key establishes the empirical foundation—the historical facts—upon which all further interpretations are built. It seeks to answer the question: "What actually happened?"

Key Two: The Boxers as Experience

Beyond the objective event, Cohen delves into the subjective "experience" of those involved. This key explores how the participants themselves understood, perceived, and gave meaning to the unfolding crisis. It investigates the Boxers' magico-religious beliefs, such as their conviction of invulnerability to bullets, and examines the pervasive role of rumor,local grievances, and cultural clashes between traditional communities and Christian converts. By looking at the rebellion through the eyes of peasants, missionaries, and officials, Cohen illuminates the motivations, fears, and worldviews that shaped their actions, moving beyond mere facts to grasp the lived realities.

Key Three: The Boxers as Myth

Perhaps Cohen's most powerful contribution, the "myth" key analyzes how the Boxer Uprising has been interpreted,reinterpreted, and selectively remembered over time to serve various political and ideological agendas. For early 20th-century Chinese intellectuals, the Boxers were often portrayed as superstitious, backward figures. In contrast, the Chinese Communist Party later reframed them as heroic anti-imperialist patriots, essential for forging a national identity rooted in revolutionary struggle. Western narratives, meanwhile, frequently highlighted the "barbarism" of the Boxers and the "heroism" of the foreign defenders. This key reveals that history is not static; it is a contested terrain where different groups construct narratives to legitimize their own perspectives and goals.

Cohen's work is a vital reminder that understanding history requires engaging with its multiple dimensions—the facts, the lived experiences, and the persistent, often politically charged, narratives that shape our collective memory.

剖析歷史：孔飛力《義和團運動史》與其持久遺產

義和團運動（1899-1901）是中國歷史上一個關鍵且常被誤解的時刻。許多歷史記述僅僅敘述了事件本身，然而孔飛力（Paul A. Cohen）1997年出版的深具影響力著作《歷史三調：作為事件、經驗和神話的義和團》（History in Three Keys: The Boxers as Event, Experience, and Myth），提供了一個深刻的方法論框架，不僅幫助我們理解發生了什麼，更理解我們如何銘記和詮釋這段歷史。孔飛力邀請我們將歷史視為一個複雜的相互作用，包含客觀事實、主觀現實和不斷演變的敘事。

第一調：作為「事件」的義和團

第一「調」關注義和團運動作為一系列可驗證的事件。這是傳統歷史敘事的範疇：人物、地點、時間和內容。孔飛力細緻地重建了事件的順序：義和拳的崛起、其排外和反基督教的暴力行為、清廷決定支持義和團的關鍵時刻、北京外國使館區的圍困，以及隨後八國聯軍的干預。這個「調」建立了實證基礎——歷史事實——所有進一步的詮釋都建立在此之上。它旨在回答一個問題：「究竟發生了什麼？」

第二調：作為「經驗」的義和團

除了客觀事件之外，孔飛力深入探討了參與者的主觀「經驗」。這個「調」考察了參與者本身如何理解、感知並賦予正在展開的危機意義。它研究了義和團的巫術宗教信仰，例如他們相信刀槍不入，並檢視了謠言、地方恩怨以及傳統社區與基督徒教徒之間文化衝突的普遍作用。通過從農民、傳教士和官員的角度看待這場起義，孔飛力闡明了塑造他們行為的動機、恐懼和世界觀，超越了單純的事實，以把握其真實的生活經驗。

第三調：作為「神話」的義和團

或許是孔飛力最具影響力的貢獻，這個「神話」調分析了義和團運動是如何被隨著時間推移而詮釋、重新詮釋和選擇性地記憶，以服務於各種政治和意識形態議程。對於20世紀初的中國知識分子來說，義和團常被描繪為迷信、落後的形象。相反地，中國共產黨後來將其重新定義為英勇的反帝國主義愛國者，對於在革命鬥爭中塑造民族認同至關重要。同時，西方敘事則經常強調義和團的「野蠻」行為和外國保衛者的「英雄」事蹟。這個「調」揭示了歷史並非靜態；它是一個充滿爭議的場域，不同的群體在此建構敘事以使其自身觀點和目標合法化。

孔飛力的著作重要地提醒我們，理解歷史需要同時審視其多重維度——事實、生活經驗，以及那些塑造我們集體記憶的持久且常帶有政治色彩的敘事。

唐宋鼎革之變：域外史家論綱

夫唐宋之際，自八世紀末葉迄十三世紀初，華夏之邦，歷亘古未有之巨變。域外史家，尤以扶桑「京都學派」與歐美漢學巨擘，覃思精研，論述宏富，開人耳目，實增吾輩於歷史流變之識。

一、內藤氏「宋代近世」之肇論

日本史學大家內藤湖南，於一九二二年首倡「宋代近世說」，以為大唐之末，中世之局已終；而大宋之興，近世之基乃立。

其論綱要者三：

政治之革： 門閥士族勢衰，君主之權益張，中央集權制益固。
社會之變： 庶族地主借科舉而興，代舊日世襲貴胄，階層流轉日盛。
文化之趨： 貴族之風轉為平民之雅（士人文化），濂洛關閩之學（理學）應運而生。

其弟子宮崎市定，踵其後，益重經濟轉型，謂宋代之近世，以商賈繁盛、分工精細、錢幣流通為要徵。

二、西學漢儒之佐證與商榷

歐美漢學界，於此論多有採納，亦有發覆。

經濟之重論： 美人馬克·埃爾文（Mark Elvin）著《中國往昔之模式》，力倡唐宋鼎革乃經濟史之巨擘。詳述宋世技術之精進、工商之速興、都邑之繁華。然亦提出**「高水平陷阱」**之說，以釋宋後經濟何以未能持續突破。
士紳之研： 羅伯特·哈特韋爾（Robert Hartwell）之作影響尤甚，以煤鐵之產、財政治事之專、士大夫精英之流變，實證唐宋之變。強調地方經濟之勃發與統治階層社會基礎之更易。
科舉之思辨： 亦有學者如郝若貝（Robert Hymes），質疑科舉於社會升遷之效。以為科舉乃流之表，非流之因，其論足令人深思，引發辯駁。

三、異議與反思之聲

然「唐宋變革論」雖宏大，亦受多方詰難：

西學之桎梏： 有謂此論或泥於歐羅巴「古世—中世—近世」之窠臼，強飾華夏之史。
連續性之辯： 論者或強調歷史之連綿不絕，謂唐之所蓄，宋乃大成；宋之所蘊，後世乃承，不宜截然斷之。又有杉山正明等，主張囊括遼、金、西夏等域，以多元中心之視角審視全局，毋囿於漢族一隅。
時序之疑： 有考證以為，若干被視作宋代特有之變（如土地私有、基層關係），或發於更早或更晚，其演進複雜，非一時之功。

結語

域外史家對唐宋變革之論，肇於內藤氏之「近世說」，繼以西學之精微考證，開闢宋史研究之新境。此論挑戰舊時史觀，敦促吾輩以開闊之胸襟，重察華夏歷史之殊異與常道。辯難雖未休止，然此跨文化之交流與互鑒，方為史學精進之本源。

2025年11月12日星期三

從自我管理到企業領導：經理人發展必經的 99 條杜拉克原則

✍️ 從自我管理到企業領導：經理人發展必經的 99 條杜拉克原則

（From Self-Mastery to Enterprise Leadership: 99 Drucker Principles for the Evolving Manager）

彼得·F·杜拉克（Peter F. Drucker）的基礎著作定義了管理，它不僅僅是一套實現效率的技術，更是現代機構的特定器官以及依賴組織的社會的領導群體。杜拉克的洞察指引著高階主管經歷一場必要的職業演變，從管理個人效能，進階到領導部屬，最終掌握整個企業的複雜性。

這份詳盡的報告綜合了杜拉克 99 條核心建議，描繪了經理人職業生涯三個關鍵階段取得成功所需的必要原則：自我管理者（Manager of Self, MOS）、他人管理者（Manager of Others, MOO）以及經理人的經理人（Manager of Managers, MOM）。

第一階段：自我管理者（MOS）– 個人效能的基石 (33 條建議)

管理的第一步是自我管理，因為管理他人是「難以捉摸」（iffy）的，但一個人總是可以管理自己。個人績效、正直品格和職業規劃是此階段的核心支柱。

個人績效與心態

永遠管理好自己，或者至少嘗試這樣做，認識到這是成功盡在個人掌握的首要領域。
理解管理最有效的方式是以身作則，而非說教或制定政策，因為同事們會「照著老闆的樣子做」。
致力於持續學習和自我發展，利用有組織的回饋來改進績效。
專注於發揮自己的長處並使其富有成效，避免徒勞地主要以弱點為基礎進行建設。
確保個人品格的正直是經理人必須為工作帶來的唯一必要素質，因為它是無法學習的，對於發展他人至關重要。
捫心自問：「我和我的組織如何利用這個想法或這些見解來更有效地執行？」
認識到資訊是經理人的主要工具和資本。
定義自己所需的資訊；不要將這個關鍵任務留給傳說中的「資訊專家」。
樂於工作（workaholic），期待工作是充滿挑戰和苛求的，尤其是作為一名年輕專業人士。
將僱用您的組織視為實現您個人人生和工作目標的工具。

倫理與審慎

實踐審慎倫理（Ethics of Prudence）：避開那些難以被理解、解釋或證明其正當性的行動。
接受領導者的主要道德義務是做出正確行為的榜樣。
透過自律和自重尋求自我實現，努力成為「優越的人」（superior man），而非接受平庸。
確保任何決策或行動在權宜之計（短期）以及長遠目標和原則上都是正確的。
如果面臨道德衝突，請記住專業人士的首要責任：primum non nocere（「首先，不要故意造成傷害」）。

工作、時間與職涯規劃

學會書面和口頭組織和表達想法，因為書面或口語是經理人用來激勵和引導人們的唯一工具。
透過規劃和思考再行動來妥善組織時間，專注於思考應該設定目標的領域。
花時間思考上司的問題，以及如何為上司的成功做出貢獻，將此視為經理人工作的一部分。
如果您是一名年輕經理人，接受持續的自我發展和進階教育是必要的，才能在競爭激烈的市場中脫穎而出。
如果您剛起步，請儘早決定您是適合安全常規的工作，還是更喜歡挑戰想像力和獨創性的工作。
確定您是屬於大型組織（注重政策/管道、間接效能）還是小型組織（注重人際接觸、立即效能）。
謹慎選擇是從層級底部開始，還是從靠近頂層的幕僚職位開始（後者提供接觸高層審議的機會，但本質上不安全）。
如果目標是快速晉升，請認識到人口壓力以及在三十五歲前需要「接近頂層」的需求。
對薪酬保持務實：永遠接受加薪而非晉升，但絕不要反過來，因為真正的晉升包括更高的薪水。
培養一項主要的業餘興趣，以確保成熟度、有效性以及抵抗任何職業生涯中固有的挫折。
如果一份工作被證明太小而無法挑戰和考驗您的能力，認識到這會撲滅您的「熱情」並導致衰退；重新設計工作或準備離開。
在為職業生涯的延續做準備時（例如，強制退休年齡 65 歲之前），應至少提前六個月，但很少超過一年開始準備。
在您四十多歲時（此時退休金通常已歸屬，且您清楚自己擅長什麼），對第二次職業轉變持開放態度。
作為知識工作者，理解您的報酬是為了將知識投入工作，這要求您思考和審查自己的貢獻，而不是僅僅關注付出的努力。
作為知識工作者，認識到您必須能夠進行自己的規劃；對於知識工作而言，將規劃與執行分開是不恰當的。
如果您是職業專業人士，請專注於讓您的產出（想法和資訊）成為他人有效的輸入，方法是避免使用專業術語。
作為職業專業人士，接受為管理層充當**「教師」和「教育者」**的角色，在您的專業領域內幫助提升組織的願景和標準。
理解如果知識工作者在X 理論（Theory X，脅迫）下被管理，他們將不會產生產出，因為知識必須是自我導向並需要責任感。

第二階段：他人管理者（MOO）– 領導團隊和知識工作者 (30 條建議)

轉向管理他人需要將個人正直轉化為制度設計，專注於目標，並最大化人力資源的生產力。

設定目標與激勵

為每位部屬設定清晰、具體、明確的目標，定義其單位應達成的績效。
確保目標闡明部屬單位預期為幫助其他單位實現目標而做出的貢獻。
確保管理績效是透過其對整個企業成功所做的貢獻來衡量的。
要求將工藝（workmanship）作為業務績效的手段，而非目的本身，以此來抵消職能專業化的負面影響。
避免用「危機」和「驅動」來進行管理，認識到這種方法是無效的、會誤導努力，並且是承認無能的表現。
設定目標時，平衡有形的業務目標與無形目標（例如，經理人發展、員工績效、公共責任）。
認識到激勵的根本任務是用自我控制來取代支配式管理。
不要使用衡量標準從外部和上方控制人員；這違反了自我控制的原則，是一種濫用。
在業務的所有關鍵領域為經理人提供清晰、共同的衡量標準。
確保自我衡量所需的資訊直接傳遞給部屬，而不是僅被用作自上而下控制的工具。
組織管理結構，使部屬專注於工作要求，而不是解讀上司的隨意評論或假設的行為。
實施正式的審查流程（例如**「經理人信函」**），讓部屬定義他們的工作目標，並列出什麼有助於或阻礙他們的績效。

管理知識工作者與團隊

直接詢問知識工作者：「我做了什麼幫助您做您領薪水該做的事？… 我們做了什麼妨礙了您？」
透過最大限度地減少文書工作和無謂的時間要求，使知識工作者能夠做他們領薪水該做的事。
系統性地盤點和排序主要機會；然後確保有執行能力的人被分配到有成果的地方，而不是組織要求規定的地方。
認識到激勵和溝通主要需要社交技能（整合和綜合）並遵守公平原則。
培養一種理解：員工渴望成就和責任（Y 理論），但需要結構來提供秩序和方向的安全感。
避免依賴**恐懼（「棍子」）**來激勵，因為它在發達國家已失去強制力，只會引起不滿。
謹慎使用物質獎勵（「胡蘿蔔」）；由於不斷增加的成本和副作用（對相對薪酬的不滿），單獨依賴它們是適得其反的。
認識到經理人必須是「同事」和上級，缺乏傳統「主人」的強制權力。
透過協調企業的三大主要職能：管理業務、管理經理人、管理工人和工作，來建立一個團隊。
確保經理人願意傾聽部屬的意見；相互理解源於「向上溝通」。

人員配置與發展

在選拔人員時，永遠最大化長處，而不是試圖最小化弱點。
如果一份工作被證明不合適（連續挫敗兩到三位成功的人選），請重新設計這份工作，假設它「不適合人類」。
罷免任何持續無法以優異成績履職的經理人，因為留任他們是對組織的極度不公和腐蝕。
接受明星個人貢獻者（例如，銷售人員、研究人員）可能比他們的單位經理賺更多的錢，因為績效報酬在專業領域至關重要。
理解發展人才是管理的一項特定的基本運作，要求經理人加強正直品格並指導部屬的成長。
認識到僅為獎勵而提拔不適合管理的人對組織是破壞性的。
透過保持中層精簡，只在舊活動被削減的情況下才批准新活動，從而避免組織混亂。
準備好成為年輕員工前十年期間的人際接觸點、指導者和傾聽者，因為缺乏這種支持會導致高流動率。

第三階段：經理人的經理人（MOM）– 領導企業 (36 條建議)

在這個階段，高階主管負責機構的整體結構、策略和連續性，通常作為高層管理團隊的一部分運作。

策略與績效衡量

主要透過衡量當今管理層為企業未來做準備的能力來評估其績效。
在四個關鍵決策領域實施管理衡量標準：資本配置、人員決策、創新和戰略規劃。
組織資本投資的回饋機制，以衡量結果是否符合預期，確保正直地正視實際結果。
透過評估預測事件是否發生以及鑑於實際發展，設定的目標是否正確，來衡量業務規劃績效。
認識到利潤不是企業的目的，而是一個限制因素，也是業務決策有效性的檢驗。
在生存所需的全部八個關鍵領域設定目標：行銷、創新、人力組織、財務資源、實物資源、生產力、社會責任和利潤要求。
在討論董事會的組成之前，先定義董事會的具體工作和職責。
要求董事會確保高層管理層為自己設計適當的績效衡量標準。
確保董事會討論公司不應該從事的業務，以及應該放棄什麼以保持組織「精簡而強健」。

組織設計與結構

將管理層級保持在絕對最低限度，因為指揮鏈中每增加一層都會扭曲目標、溝通和管理發展。
在設計組織時，首先分析需要卓越的關鍵活動或缺乏績效會危及生存的活動。
設計組織，使其對任何給定的活動施加盡可能少量的關係，同時確保關鍵關係輕鬆且易於獲取。
確保經理人被安排在足夠高的位置以擁有典型決策所需的權力，但又足夠低以保留對行動的詳細、第一手知識。
在設計知識組織時，明確闡明決策權力（誰可以改變計劃，誰可以改變改變者），認識到需要更大程度的權力下放。
對於新的中層管理結構，專注於責任和貢獻，而不是傳統的自上而下的權力。
將「良心」（Conscience）活動（願景、標準設定、審計）與營運和提供建議的活動明確分開。
在組織專業諮詢或教學人員時，要求他們透過設定目標和衡量結果，作為服務機構運作。
在一個創新組織中，從公司想要達到的目標（未來）開始組織工作，然後回溯到現在必須做什麼，而不是擴展現有的業務。

創新、成長與財務管理

區別對待創新努力；假設大多數會失敗，並計算潛在結果至少是所需公司目標的三倍。
在創新成功建立之前，將創新的融資和控制與持續的業務分開。
透過鼓勵甚至是初級人員向高層管理層提出**「瘋狂」的想法**以獲得資助和支持，來創造創新的組織文化。
設定一個由避免隨著市場擴大而邊緣化所需的最低增長決定的增長目標。
區分理想的增長（導致生產力的力量）和不良的增長（以犧牲生產力為代價購買的「脂肪」或「惡性腫瘤」）。
將增長戰略建立在集中的基礎上，專注於透過預測變化而創造的特定優勢和機會目標。
在發展中小型企業時，至少提前兩到三年預測所需的財務結構和資源。
在通貨膨脹期間，管理業務以滿足兩個不相容的要求：最小化損失風險（最少現金/最大短期債務）和高流動性（危機準備）。
理解**「生產資本」（固定資產）和「支持資本」（營運資本）**之間的區別，並以不同方式管理它們的生產力。

領導力發展與外部角色

確保高層管理人員提前（大約五年）得到充分發展，以滿足未來增長的需求。
確保高層管理層已仔細思考高層職位的繼任問題。
利用強制退休（例如，65 歲）作為**「職業延續」**的機會，將高階主管的技能用於公司的利益，擔任諮詢或項目角色。
認識到高層管理層的決定性職能是政治領導，而不僅僅是行政管理。
準備好組織以處理資訊爆炸，方法是定義誰可以訪問哪些資訊，遵循的規則是經理人需要知道所有與他們工作和緊接上一個層級相關的資訊。
透過思考作用、設定目標和執行來管理社會影響和社會責任；避免僅將它們視為公共關係問題。
對於非營利機構，最基本的一步是定義它們的任務是什麼以及不應該是什麼，以便使它們可管理和富有成效。
努力將消除負面社會影響（例如，污染）變成一個有利可圖的商業機會。
不要因為過度承擔社會責任而產生過高的社會間接成本，從而危及企業的績效能力。

經理人演變的類比：

經理人經歷這三個階段的進程，就像開發一個複雜的儀器。首先，個體必須實現自我管理者，確保儀器調試良好且結構穩固（掌握個人倫理、優勢和時間）。接下來，作為他人管理者，他們學會指揮一個小型樂隊，將儀器的能力轉化為協調的產出（設定目標、激勵團隊、指導知識工作者）。最後，作為經理人的經理人，他們必須掌握整個交響樂的編排，設計音樂廳本身（組織結構），選擇音樂（策略），並確保演出服務於更廣泛的社群（管理社會影響並確保未來）。

From Self-Mastery to Enterprise Leadership: 99 Drucker Principles for the Evolving Manager

Peter F. Drucker’s foundational work defines management not merely as a set of techniques for achieving efficiency, but as the specific organ of modern institutions and the leadership group of a society dependent on organizations. Drucker’s insights guide the executive through a necessary career evolution, progressing from managing personal effectiveness to leading subordinates, and finally to mastering the complexities of the overall enterprise.

This detailed paper synthesizes 99 core pieces of Drucker's advice, charting the essential principles required for success across the three critical stages of a managerial career: Manager of Self, Manager of Others, and Manager of Managers.

Stage I: Manager of Self (MOS) – The Foundation of Personal Effectiveness (33 Advises)

The first step in management is self-management, as managing others is "iffy," but one can always manage oneself. Personal performance, integrity, and career planning are the core pillars of this stage.

Personal Performance and Mindset

Always manage oneself, or at least try, recognizing that this is the primary area where success is within individual control.
Understand that management is most effectively done by example, not by preaching or policy, as associates will do as the boss does.
Commit to continuous learning and self-development, using organized feedback to improve performance.
Focus on making one’s strengths productive, avoiding the futile attempt to build primarily upon weaknesses.
Ensure personal integrity of character is the single required quality a manager must bring to the job, as it cannot be learned and is essential for developing others.
Ask: "How can I, and we in my organization, use this idea or these insights to perform more effectively?".
Recognize that information is the manager’s main tool and capital.
Define the information you need yourself; do not leave this critical task to the mythical "information specialist".
Be workaholic, expecting work to be challenging and demanding, particularly as a young professional.
View the organization employing you as your tool to achieve your own ends in life and work.

Ethics and Prudence

Practice the Ethics of Prudence: shun actions that cannot easily be understood, explained, or justified.
Accept that the leader's primary ethical obligation is to give the example of right behavior.
Seek self-fulfillment through self-discipline and self-respect, striving to become the "superior man" rather than accepting mediocrity.
Ensure that any decision or action is sound in expediency (short-term) as well as in long-range objective and principle.
If faced with an ethical conflict, remember the professional's first responsibility: primum non nocere ("Above all, not knowingly to do harm").

Work, Time, and Career Planning

Learn to organize and express ideas in writing and speaking, as the written or spoken word is the only tool managers have to motivate and guide people.
Organize time well by planning and thinking before acting, focusing on thinking through the areas where objectives should be set.
Spend time thinking through the boss’s problems and how to contribute to the success of the superior, considering this a part of the manager's job.
If you are a young manager, accept that continued self-development and advanced education are necessary to stand out in the crowded market.
If you are starting out, decide early if you thrive in secure routine work or prefer work challenging the imagination and ingenuity.
Determine if you belong in a large organization (policies/channels, remote effectiveness) or a small one (personal contacts, immediate effectiveness).
Choose deliberately whether to start at the bottom of the hierarchy or in a staff position near the top (which offers exposure to top deliberations but is inherently insecure).
If aiming for rapid promotion, recognize the demographic pressures and the need to be "near the top" by age thirty-five.
Be realistic about compensation: always take a raise in lieu of a promotion, but never the reverse, as genuine promotion includes higher pay.
Develop a major outside interest to ensure maturity, effectiveness, and resistance against the setbacks inherent in any career.
If a job proves too small to challenge and test your abilities, recognize that this will quench your "fire" and lead to decline; redesign the job or be prepared to leave.
When preparing for career continuation (e.g., prior to mandatory retirement at 65), start preparation at least six months, but rarely more than one year, in advance.
Be open to a second career change in your mid-forties, when pension is usually vested and you know what you are good at.
As a knowledge worker, understand that you are paid for putting knowledge to work, requiring you to think through and review your contributions rather than focusing solely on effort.
As a knowledge worker, recognize that you must be able to do your own planning; separation of planning from doing is inappropriate for knowledge work.
If you are a career professional, focus on making your output (ideas and information) the effective input for othersby avoiding specialized jargon.
As a career professional, accept the role of "teacher" and "educator" for management, helping to raise the organization's vision and standards within your area of expertise.
Understand that the knowledge worker will not produce if managed under Theory X (coercion), as knowledge must be self-directed and requires responsibility.

Stage II: Manager of Others (MOO) – Leading Teams and Knowledge Workers (30 Advises)

The shift to managing others requires translating personal integrity into institutional design, focusing on objectives, and maximizing the productivity of human resources.

Setting Objectives and Motivation

Set clear, specific, spelled-out objectives for each subordinate, defining the performance their unit is supposed to produce.
Ensure objectives spell out the contribution the subordinate unit is expected to make to help other units obtain their objectives.
Ensure managerial results are measured by the contribution they make to the success of the whole enterprise.
Counteract functional specialization by demanding that workmanship be made the means to the end of business performance, not an end in itself.
Avoid management by "crisis" and "drives," recognizing this method is ineffective, misdirects effort, and is an admission of incompetence.
When setting objectives, balance tangible business goals with intangible goals (e.g., manager development, worker performance, public responsibility).
Recognize that the fundamental task in motivation is to substitute management by self-control for management by domination.
Do not use measurements to control people from outside and above; this violates the principle of self-control and is an abuse.
Supply managers with clear and common yardsticks in all key areas of the business.
Ensure information needed for self-measurement goes directly to the subordinate, and is not used solely as a tool of control from above.
Structure management so that subordinates focus on the job demands, not on interpreting the boss’s casual remarks or assumed behaviors.
Implement a formal review process (like the "manager’s letter") where subordinates define their job objectives and list what helps or hampers their performance.

Managing Knowledge Workers and Teams

Ask knowledge workers directly: "What do I... do that helps you in doing what you are being paid for? … What do we do that hampers you?".
Enable knowledge workers to do what they are being paid for by minimizing paperwork and pointless demands on their time.
Systematically conduct an inventory and ranking of major opportunities; then ensure performing people are assigned where the results are, not where organizational demands dictate.
Recognize that motivation and communication require primarily social skill (integration and synthesis) and adherence to the principle of justice.
Foster the understanding that workers want achievement and responsibility (Theory Y), but structure is needed to provide the security of order and direction.
Avoid relying on fear ("the stick") to motivate, as it has lost coercive power in developed countries and causes only resentment.
Use material rewards ("the carrot") cautiously; exclusive reliance on them is self-defeating due to increasing costs and toxic side effects (dissatisfaction over relative pay).
Recognize that a manager must be a "fellow employee" and a superior, lacking the coercive authority of a traditional "master".
Build a team by harmonizing the three major functions of the enterprise: managing a business, managing managers, and managing worker and work.
Ensure managers are willing to listen to subordinates; mutual understanding results from "communications up".

Staffing and Development

When selecting people, always maximize strength rather than trying to minimize weakness.
If a job proves inadequate (defeats two or three successful candidates consecutively), redesign the job, assuming it is "unfit for human beings".
Remove any manager who consistently fails to perform with high distinction, as retaining them is grossly unfair and corrupts the organization.
Accept that star individual contributors (e.g., salespersons, researchers) may earn more money than their unit manager, as performance compensation is crucial in specialized fields.
Understand that developing people is a specific basic operation of management, requiring the manager to strengthen integrity and direct subordinates’ growth.
Recognize that promoting people who are incompetent to manage, solely for reward, is destructive to the organization.
Avoid organizational chaos by keeping the middle ranks lean, sanctioning new activities only if old ones are cut back.
Be prepared to be a human contact, a guide, and a listener for young employees during their first ten years, as the absence of this support causes high turnover.

Stage III: Manager of Managers (MOM) – Leading the Enterprise (36 Advises)

In this stage, the executive is responsible for the overall structure, strategy, and continuity of the institution, often operating as part of top management.

Strategy and Performance Measurement

Measure the performance of today’s management primarily by its ability to prepare the business for the future.
Implement managerial yardsticks in four crucial areas of decision making: capital allocation, people decisions, innovation, and strategic planning.
Organize feedback from capital investments to measure results against expectations, ensuring integrity to face up to actual results.
Measure business planning performance by assessing whether predicted events happened and if the goals set were the right ones in light of actual developments.
Recognize that profit is not the purpose of business, but a limiting factor and the test of the validity of business decisions.
Set objectives in all eight key areas essential for survival: marketing, innovation, human organization, financial resources, physical resources, productivity, social responsibility, and profit requirements.
Define the specific work and assignments of the Board of Directors before discussing its composition.
Require the Board to ensure that top management designs adequate performance yardsticks for itself.
Ensure the board addresses what business the company should not be in, and what should be abandoned to keep the organization "lean and muscular".

Organizational Design and Structure

Keep management levels to the absolute minimum, as every added layer in the chain of command distorts objectives, communication, and management development.
When designing the organization, start by analyzing the key activities where excellence is required or where lack of performance would endanger survival.
Design the organization so that it imposes the smallest possible number of relationships on any given activity, while ensuring crucial relationships are easy and accessible.
Ensure managers are placed high enough to have the authority needed for typical decisions, but low enough to retain detailed, firsthand knowledge of the action.
When designing the knowledge organization, clearly spell out decision authority (who can change the plan, and who can change the changers), recognizing the need for greater devolution of power.
For new middle management structures, focus on responsibility and contribution rather than traditional downward authority.
Clearly separate "Conscience" activities (vision, standard setting, auditing) from operating and advice-giving activities.
When organizing specialized advisory or teaching staff, require them to operate as service institutions by setting objectives and measuring results.
In an innovative organization, organize work from where the company wants to be (the future) back to what must be done now, rather than extending the existing business.

Innovation, Growth, and Financial Management

Treat innovation efforts distinctly; assume the majority will fail, and calculate potential results to be at least three times the needed company objectives.
Separate the financing and control of innovation from ongoing businesses until the innovation is successfully established.
Create an innovative organizational culture by encouraging even junior personnel to bring "wild" ideas to top management for funding and support.
Set a growth goal determined by the minimum growth needed to avoid becoming marginal as the market expands.
Distinguish between desirable growth (strength leading to productivity) and undesirable growth ("fat" or "malignant tumor" purchased at the expense of productivity).
Base a growth strategy on concentration, centering on specific strengths and targets of opportunity created by anticipating changes.
When growing a small- or medium-sized business, anticipate financial structures and resources needed at least two to three years ahead.
Manage the business to satisfy two incompatible requirements during inflation: minimum exposure to loss(minimum cash/maximum short-term debt) and high liquidity (crisis readiness).
Understand the distinction between "producing capital" (fixed assets) and "supporting capital" (working capital), and manage the productivity of each differently.

Leadership Development and External Role

Ensure that top management is developed well ahead of time (approximately five years) to meet the demands of future growth.
Ensure top management has thought through the succession to top management jobs.
Utilize mandatory retirement (e.g., at age 65) as an opportunity for "career continuation" in advisory or project roles, leveraging the senior executive's skills for the company's benefit.
Recognize that top management’s decisive function is political leadership, not merely administration.
Prepare the organization to handle the information explosion by defining who shall have access to what information, following the rule that a manager needs to know everything that pertains to their work and the level immediately above them.
Manage social impacts and social responsibilities by thinking through the role, setting objectives, and performing; avoid treating them merely as public relations issues.
For non-profit institutions, the most essential step is defining what their task is and what it should not be, in order to make them manageable and performing.
Work toward making the elimination of negative social impacts (e.g., pollution) into a profitable business opportunity.
Do not risk the performance capacity of the enterprise by overloading it with social responsibilities that create excessive social overhead costs.

Analogy for Managerial Evolution:

The progression of a manager through these three stages is like developing a complex instrument. First, the individual must achieve Manager of Self, ensuring the instrument is well-tuned and structurally sound (mastering personal ethics, strengths, and time). Next, as Manager of Others, they learn to conduct a small ensemble, translating the instrument's capabilities into coordinated output (setting objectives, motivating teams, coaching knowledge workers). Finally, as Manager of Managers, they must master the orchestration of the entire symphony, designing the concert hall itself (organizational structure), selecting the music (strategy), and ensuring the performance serves the wider community (managing social impacts and securing the future).

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2025年11月14日 星期五