Chronicles of a Southern Sojourn: Li Zhongjue’s Observations of Modern Medicine and Colonial Society in Singapore

The Praise of Modern Medicine in a Colonial Outpost

Introduction

In 1887, Li Zhongjue, a scholar from Shanghai, journeyed to Singapore to visit his close friend Zuo Binglong, the Chinese Consul. His observations, later published as Xingjiapo Fengtuji (The Customs of Singapore) in 1895, provide a rare late-Qing perspective on the rapid modernization of the British Straits Settlements. While Li documented everything from the "pearl-like" geography of the island to the thriving pepper and gambier trades, he was particularly struck by the stark differences between Chinese and Western approaches to public health and institutional management.

The Architecture of Healing: Praising the Western Hospital

One of the most significant sections of Li’s record is his detailed praise for the British-run hospitals in Singapore. He describes these institutions as models of "perfected regulations" and "impeccable cleanliness".

• Environmental Standards: Li marveled at the spaciousness of the facilities, noting that the hospital grounds were vast and the wards were both clean and well-ventilated.

• Patient Dignity: He observed that each patient was provided with their own bed, along with a long table and stool for eating and resting.

• Freedom of Movement: Unlike the restrictive or grim atmospheres of contemporary Chinese relief houses, Li noted that patients in Singapore were allowed to stand, sit, or walk freely, appearing "without the appearance of being constrained or suffering".

A Critique of Domestic Conditions

Li used his praise for Singapore’s hospitals as a mirror to critique the state of charitable institutions in China. He noted that while Chinese cities had many benevolent halls (Shan Tang), their physical conditions were often "cramped and oppressive," filled with "foul-smelling vapors". He argued that a healthy person entering such a place would likely fall ill, and a sick person would find no recovery. By adopting the Western model of expanding land, increasing the number of rooms, and hiring dedicated cleaning staff, Li believed the impact on public welfare would be immense.

Cultural Friction and Modern Infrastructure

Despite his admiration for the facilities, Li recognized the deep-seated cultural fear many Chinese residents felt toward Western medical practices, which they found "alarming" or "terrifying". He pointed to the Kiang Wu Hospital in Macau as a successful middle ground: it adopted Western-style regulations for ward separation (internal medicine, surgery, infectious diseases) but employed Chinese doctors using traditional herbal formulas.

Beyond medicine, Li noted other facets of Singapore’s modern infrastructure:

• Sanitation: The British engineered a sophisticated water system, sourcing spring water from the mountains, filtering it through sand, and piping it into the city.

• Civil Engineering: He praised the iron bridges, which he found even more sturdy than those in the foreign concessions of Shanghai.

• Public Safety: The fire prevention system involved telegraph alerts and high-pressure water gates, ensuring that "no major fires" occurred.

Conclusion

Li Zhongjue’s account is more than a travelogue; it is a call for modernization. By highlighting the "spotless wards" and "systematic regulations" of Singapore’s hospitals, he provided his Chinese readers with a vision of how social welfare could be transformed through architectural and administrative reform.

 

新嘉坡風土記：李鍾玨筆下的十九世紀末星洲紀實

前言

光緒十三年（1887年），上海學者李鍾玨為探訪時任中國駐新嘉坡領事的至交左秉隆，遠渡重洋抵達星洲 。在為期一月的寓居期間，李氏詳盡記錄了該地的地理、政治、經濟及社會面貌，並於1895年將其雜記彙編成《新嘉坡風土記》 。此書不僅是珍貴的歷史文獻，更捕捉了新加坡在殖民鼎盛時期背後的社會複雜性。

地理環境：海中之珠

李鍾玨將新加坡形容為「驪龍頷下珠」，生動地描繪了其位於馬來半島南端、四面環水的地理形勢 。他觀察到，此地西有蘇門答臘，南有爪哇，東有婆羅洲為屏障，形勢優越，為南洋各島所不及 。全島以河為界，分為「大坡」（南）與「小坡」（北），島上平陽多而山少，草木茂盛 。

英國殖民統治與行政

當時的英人統治架構嚴密，設有總督、輔政使司及各類專職司官 。李氏特別提到「護衞司」一職，名義上管理華人事務，實則時常掣肘 。此外，新加坡自開埠以來推行免稅政策，僅對煙、酒重征稅收，這兩項稅收成為政府收入的大宗 。

族群融合與社會組成

根據當時的冊籍，居民分為五種：中國人、歐羅巴人、巫來由人（土人）、亞墨利加人及東方諸國人 。其中華人數目最多，約在八、九萬至十萬之間 。李氏亦觀察到「土生華人」的文化變遷，如婦女多從土裝、習巫語，令他感嘆風俗人心之壞 。

經濟貿易與社會問題

新加坡作為貿易轉運中心，以胡椒和甘蜜為出口大宗 。儘管此地造就了擁資千萬的華商，但社會底層的暗影依然沉重：

• 「賣豬仔」現象：販賣華工出洋的惡習屢禁不止，許多沿海人民被騙或被劫入番舶，處境淒慘 。

• 鴉片流毒：儘管煙價因重稅而昂貴，但貧苦勞工仍深陷煙癖，將血汗錢盡付煙斗 。

• 祕密結社：島內存在所謂「危險會」（私會黨），入會人數高達五萬六千餘人，成為治安隱憂 。

文化與現代設施

李氏對當地的現代化建設印象深刻，包括堅固的鐵橋、徹夜不熄的煤氣燈，以及收藏有十丈蟒蛇和人面魚的博物院 。他稱讚西人醫院規制完善、病房潔淨，但也指出華人因文化差異而對西醫感到畏懼 。

結語

李鍾玨認為，新嘉坡雖處極盛之時，但因商務繁盛帶來的姦僞變詐與傳統流失，已顯露「運會將下」之機 。他的觀察不僅紀錄了星洲的繁華，更以一名清末知識分子的視角，深刻反思了海外華人在殖民體系下的生存與掙扎。

 

Chronicles of a Southern Sojourn: Li Zhongjue’s Observations of Late 19th-Century Singapore

Introduction

In 1887 (the 13th year of the Guangxu reign), Li Zhongjue, a scholar from Shanghai, traveled to Singapore to visit his old friend Zuo Binglong, who was serving as the Chinese Consul. During his month-long stay, Li meticulously recorded the geography, politics, economy, and social fabric of the island, eventually publishing Xingjiapo Fengtuji (The Customs of Singapore) in 1895. This work stands as a vital historical bridge, capturing Singapore at a peak of colonial prosperity while foreshadowing the social complexities of the era.

Geography and the "Pearl of the Seas"

Li describes Singapore’s strategic location at the tip of the Malay Peninsula, likening it to a "pearl under the chin of a black dragon". He notes the island is shielded by Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, creating a natural harbor unparalleled by other islands in the South Seas. Divided by a central river into "Greater Plain" (South) and "Lesser Plain" (North), the island’s topography consisted of low hills and dense tropical forests.

Governance and the British Administration

The British established a comprehensive administrative hierarchy, including the Governor, Colonial Secretary, and various specialized departments. Li highlights the legal system, where the "Protector of Chinese" (護衞司) ostensibly looked after Chinese interests but often proved obstructive. Notably, Singapore operated as a free port with no import or export duties, except for heavy taxes on opium and alcohol, which were the primary sources of government revenue.

A Melting Pot of People

Li observed five categories of residents: Chinese, Europeans, Malays (Native), Americans, and "Easterners" (Indians, Burmese, Siamese). Among these, the Chinese were the most numerous, estimated at nearly 100,000. He notes the cultural shifts among the local-born Chinese (Baba/Nyonya), who often adopted Malay dress and language, leading to a "loss of original essence" in the eyes of the Qing scholar.

Economy, Trade, and Social Issues

Singapore served as a transshipment hub rather than a producer of raw materials, with pepper and gambier being the primary commodities. The wealth gap was stark; while some Chinese merchants amassed fortunes of tens of millions, the "native" populations lived in poverty. Li also sheds light on darker social realities:

• The "Piglet" Trade: The exploitation of Chinese laborers (coolies) who were often tricked or kidnapped into service.

• Opium Addiction: Despite its high cost due to taxation, opium use was rampant among the poor, consuming their meager earnings.

• Secret Societies: The rise of "Dangerous Societies" (Triads) with over 56,000 members, which Li viewed as a threat to social stability.

Cultural and Modern Infrastructure

Li marveled at the modern infrastructure, including iron bridges, gas lighting, and the nascent museum containing exotic specimens like 10-foot pythons and human-faced fish. He praised the cleanliness of Western hospitals compared to the cramped conditions in China but noted the cultural fear Chinese people felt toward Western medical practices.

Conclusion

Li Zhongjue concluded that while Singapore appeared to be at the height of its prosperity, the moral decay—characterized by fraud and the loss of tradition—indicated a potential decline. His account remains a poignant reflection on the intersection of British colonial expansion and the resilient, yet embattled, Chinese diaspora.

占城對明朝的朝貢策略與影響

 

占城對明朝的朝貢策略與影響

摘要 占城被日本占城史專家桃木至朗譽為「海之王者」。14世紀時，占城因王室聯姻與邊境爭議，與北方的安南陷入長年仇恨，並在安南的入侵下屈辱求和 。在此關鍵時刻，占城國王制蓬莪展現出卓越的外交手腕，透過向明朝朝貢，「假中國之威，以制服其仇」，因而被安南人畏稱為「占城項羽」 。

明成祖時期，隨著明朝與安南關係惡化，占城藉機配合明軍南北夾擊，最終消滅了安南 。然而，局勢隨後發生劇變。明成祖逝世後，安南擺脫明朝控制並建立黎朝 。黎朝君主黎聖宗（號「天南洞主」）吸取前朝教訓，致力於經營與明朝的關係 。相比之下，占城在外交上墨守成規，一昧採取「狐媚燕京」的策略，最終在安南的再次進攻下國破家亡 。占城王子古來雖親自前往明朝告狀，卻未能挽回頹勢，占城也隨之消失在歷史長河中 。

核心歷史主題 占城與明朝的歷史關係主要體現在以下幾個關鍵階段與影響：

• 外交策略：占城從制蓬莪時期的成功外交，到後期因策略僵化而導致失敗的演變過程 。

• 軍事同盟：明朝與占城聯手消滅安南的軍事合作 。

• 海洋戰略：占城在明朝海洋戰略中的地位，以及雙方之間存在的走私貿易 。

• 文化交流：透過朝貢體系，明朝與占城在文化與政治上產生的相互影響 。

---